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Red Sticks

Red Sticks

Red Sticks is the English term for a faction of Creek Indians (known as mvskoke in the language). The term "red sticks" is derived from the red-colored war clubs and the alleged magical red sticks used by Creek shamans. This faction of Creeks aggressively supported traditional views of Creek society such as hunting and communal land. Inspired by the Shawnee prophet Tecumseh and angered by perceived unrestrained encroachment of white culture, Red Sticks went to war against their own people. The Red Sticks came primarily from the Upper Towns of Creek Territory, and opposed white expansionism and rejected white culture. The Red Stick War, more commonly called the Creek War among whites, raged from 1813-1814. During the Creek War, Redsticks would often lash out at symbols of white influence. They would often kill domesticated animals, destroy farming equipment, and burn crops. Metal pots and pans as well as spun cloth would be routinely rounded up and burned. The Creek Civil War broadened to include American forces after the Fort Mims Massacre. The Red Sticks were led by William Weatherford, Menawa, and Peter McQueen. The war resulted in the loss of half of the traditional Creek territory and another migrition of Creeks into the Florida Seminole territory.

References

- John Ehle, Trail of Tears The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation (Anchor Books Editions 1989), ISBN 0385239548 Category:Creek War Category:Muscogee people

Creek people

The Creeks are an American Indian people originally from the southeastern United States, also known by their original name Muscogee (or Muskogee), the name they use to identify themselves today. Mvskoke is their name in traditional spelling. Modern Muscogees live primarily in Oklahoma, Alabama, and Florida. Mvskoke is a member of the Creek branch of the Muskogean language family. The Seminole are close kin to the Muscogee and speak a Creek language as well. The Creeks are one of the Five Civilized Tribes. Five Civilized Tribes

Early history

The early historic Creeks were probably descendants of the mound builders of the Mississippian culture. More of a loose confederacy than a single tribe, the Muscogee lived in autonomous villages in river valleys throughout what are today the states of Georgia and Alabama and consisted of many ethnic groups speaking several distinct languages. Those who lived along the Ocmulgee River were called "Creek Indians" by British traders from South Carolina; eventually the name was applied to all of the various natives of the region. Creeks engaged in trade with their new British neighbors, receiving European trade goods in exchange for deerskins and Indian slaves captured in Florida. In the eighteenth century, Creeks began to intermarry with British traders as well as runaway African slaves. Differences in geography and interaction with Europeans eventually led to the Creek towns becoming increasingly divided between the Lower Towns of the Georgia frontier (on the Chattahoochee, Ocmulgee and Flint Rivers), and the Upper Towns of the Alabama River Valley.

Revolutionary Era

Like many Native American groups east of the Mississippi River, the Creeks were divided over which side to take in the American Revolutionary War. The Lower Creeks remained neutral; the Upper Creeks allied with the British and fought the colonial rebels. After the rebellion officially ended in 1783, the Creeks discovered Great Britain had ceded Creek lands to the new United States. The State of Georgia began to expand into Creek territory. Creek statesman Alexander McGillivray rose to prominence as he organized pan-Indian resistance to this encroachment and received arms from the Spanish in Florida to fight trespassing Georgians. McGillivray worked to create a sense of Creek nationalism and to centralize Creek authority, struggling against village leaders who individually sold land to the United States. With the Treaty of New York in 1790, McGillivray ceded a significant portion of Creek lands to the United States under the administration of George Washington in exchange for federal recognition of Creek sovereignty within the remaining territory. However, McGillivray died in 1793 and Georgia continued to expand into Creek territory.

Red Stick War

The Creek War of 1813-1814, also known as the Red Stick War, began as a civil war within the Creek Nation, only to become enmeshed within the War of 1812. Inspired by the fiery eloquence of the Shawnee leader Tecumseh and their own religious leaders, Creeks from the Upper Towns, known to whites as Red Sticks, sought to aggressively resist white encroachment and the "civilizing" programs administered by U.S. Indian Agent Benjamin Hawkins. Red Stick leaders William Weatherford (Red Eagle), Peter McQueen and Menawa violently clashed with the Lower Creeks led by William McIntosh, who were allied with the Americans. On August 30, 1813, Red Sticks led by Red Eagle attacked the American outpost of Fort Mims near Mobile, Alabama, where white Americans and their Indian allies had gathered. The Red Sticks took the fort and a horrifying massacre ensued, as prisoners — including women and children — were butchered. Nearly 250 people were killed, spreading panic throughout the American southwestern frontier. In response to the massacre at Fort Mims, Tennessee, Georgia, and the Mississippi Territory sent armies deep into Creek country. Outnumbered and poorly armed, the Red Sticks put up a desperate fight from their wilderness strongholds. On March 27, 1814, General Andrew Jackson's Tennessee militia, aided by the 39th U. S. Infantry Regiment and Cherokee and Creek allies, finally crushed Red Stick resistance at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend on the Tallapoosa River. Though the Red Sticks had been crushed — altogether, about 3000 Upper Creek died in the war — the remnants of the Upper Creek resistance held out for several months. In August of 1814, exhausted and starving, they surrendered to Jackson at Wetumpka (near the present city of Montgomery, Alabama). On August 9, 1814, the Creek were forced to sign the Treaty of Fort Jackson, which ended the conflict and required them to cede some 20 million acres (81,000 km²) of land - more than half of their ancestral territorial holdings - to the United States. Even those Creek who had fought alongside Jackson were compelled to cede territory, as Jackson held them responsible for allowing the Red Sticks to rise up. The State of Alabama was carved out of this domain and admitted to the United States in 1819.

Removal to the West

After the War of 1812, some Creek leaders such as William McIntosh signed a number of treaties that ceded more and more land to Georgia. Eventually, the Creek Confederacy enacted a law that made further land cessions a capital offense. Nevertheless, on February 12, 1825, McIntosh and other chiefs signed the Treaty of Indian Springs, which gave up most of the remaining Creek lands in Georgia. [http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/cre0214.htm] McIntosh was a cousin of Georgia governor George Troup, who saw the Creeks as a threat to white expansion in the region, and had been elected for the Democratic party on a platform of Indian removal. McIntosh's motives have been variously interpreted. Some believed he had been bribed to sell out his people; others insisted he had realized that the Creeks were going to lose their lands eventually, and that he got the best possible deal for them. [http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/naind/html/na_021800_mcintoshwill.htm] After the U.S. Senate ratified the treaty, McIntosh was assassinated (31 May 1825) by Creeks led by Menawa. (Major Ridge of the Cherokees later made the same choices as McIntosh, and paid the same price.) The Creek National Council, led by Opothle Yohola, protested to the United States that the Treaty of Indian Springs was fraudulent. President John Quincy Adams was sympathetic, and eventually the treaty was nullified in a new agreement, the Treaty of Washington (1826). [http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/cre0264.htm] Writes historian R. Douglas Hurt: "The Creeks had accomplished what no Indian nation had ever done or would do again — achieve the annulment of a ratified treaty." However, Governor Troup of Georgia ignored the new treaty and began to forcibly remove the Indians under the terms of the earlier treaty. At first, President Adams attempted to intervene with federal troops, but Troup called out the militia, and Adams, fearful of a civil war, conceded. As he explained to his intimates, "The Indians are not worth going to war over." Although the Creeks had been forced from Georgia, with many Lower Creeks moving to the Indian Territory, there were still about 20,000 Upper Creeks living in Alabama. However, the state moved to abolish tribal governments and extend state laws over the Creeks. Opothle Yohola appealed to the administration of President Andrew Jackson for protection from Alabama; when none was forthcoming, the Treaty of Cusseta was signed on 24 March 1832, which divided up Creek lands into individual allotments. [http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/cre0341.htm] Creeks could either sell their allotments and received funds to remove to the west, or stay in Alabama and submit to state laws. Land speculators and squatters began to defraud Creeks out of their allotments, and violence broke out, leading to the so-called "Creek War of 1836." Secretary of War Lewis Cass dispatched General Winfield Scott to end the violence by forcibly removing the Creeks to the Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River. The official website of the Muscogees describes the next phase in their history: :In the new nation the Lower Muscogees located their farms and plantations on the Arkansas and Verdigris rivers. The Upper Muscogees re-established their ancient towns on the Canadian River and its northern branches. The tribal towns of both groups continued to send representatives to a National Council which met near High Springs. The Muscogee Nation as a whole began to experience a new prosperity. [http://www.muscogeenation-nsn.gov/history.html]

The Muscogee Today

Most Muscogees were removed to Indian Territory, although some remained behind. There are a number of Muscogees in Alabama living near Poarch Creek Reservation in Atmore (northeast of Mobile), as well as a number of Creeks in essentially undocumented ethnic towns in Florida. Additionally, Muscogee descendants of varying degrees of acculturation live throughout the southeastern United States. The reservation includes a bingo hall and holds an annual powwow on Thanksgiving. Though the Creek Confederacy was one of the largest Native groups, their unpopularity after the Creek War may have made them more likely to attempt assimilation into other tribes and white culture.

Famous Creek

Jim Pepper jazz musician (deceased), combined elements of Native American music and jazz.

Notes

Hurt, R. Douglas, The Indian Frontier: 1763-1846 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2002), p. 148.

External links

- [http://www.LostWorlds.org/ocmulgee_mounds.html LostWorlds.org | Ocmulgee Mounds: Creek/Muskogee Origins]
- [http://www.muscogeenation-nsn.gov/ Muscogee (Creek) Nation of Oklahoma (official site)]
- [http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/naind/html/na_009100_creek.htm Creek (Muskogee) by Kenneth W. McIntosh -- Encyclopedia of North American Indians]
- [http://ourgeorgiahistory.com/indians/Creek/index.html History of the Creek Indians in Georgia]
- [http://www.loc.gov/bicentennial/propage/AL/al_s_sessions1.html Poarch Creek Indians in Alabama]
- http://www.poarchcreekindians.org/tribal_history.htm
- [http://www.tfn.net/Museum/language.html Comprehensive Creek Language materials online]
- [http://gilbert-wesley-purdy.blogspot.com/2005/09/bartram-seeks-news-of-creeks-and.html Bartram Seeks News of the Creeks and Seminoles.] About to ascend the St. John's River, in April of 1774, William Bartram seeks information about a recent incident between the local settlers and Indians. Category:Native American tribes
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Shaman

:This article is about the practice of shamanism; for other uses, see Shaman (disambiguation). Shaman (disambiguation) Shamanism refers to the traditional healing and religious practices of Northern Asia (Siberia) and Mongolia. By extension, the concept of shamanism has been extended in common language to a range of traditional beliefs and practices that involve the ability to diagnose, cure, and sometimes cause human suffering by traversing the axis mundi and forming a special relationship with, or gaining control over, spirits. Shamans have been credited with the ability to control the weather, divination, the interpretation of dreams, astral projection, and traveling to upper and lower worlds. Shamanistic traditions have existed throughout the world since prehistoric times. Shamanism is based on the premise that the visible world is pervaded by invisible forces or spirits that affect the lives of the living. In contrast to animism and animatism, which any and usually all members of a society practice, shamanism requires specialized knowledge or abilities. It could be said that shamans are the experts employed by animists or animist communities. Shamans are not, however, often organized into full-time ritual or spiritual associations, as are priests. It is questionnable whether there was an -ism called "Shamanism" until such a thing was invented in the West out of the diverse practices of indigenous people in particular locations worldwide.

Etymology

The word "shaman" probably originated among the Siberian Tungus (Evenks) and literally means "he (or she) who knows"; the belief that the word may be derived from Sanskrit is perhaps due to the relation between the words "shamanism" and "shramanism", from the sanskrit "shramana", Pali and Prakrit "samana"; the samanas were ascetics, not shamans, however. However, in Sanskrit, the word "shamana" also exists, and it means the act of calming, tranquilizing, soothing or destroying - this, through Buddhism, could have led to the formation of the modern word Shamanism. (cf. Merril-Webster Sanskrit Dictionary) It has replaced the older English language term witch doctor, a term which unites the two stereotypical functions of the shaman: knowledge of magical and other lore, and the ability to cure a person and mend a situation. However, at the present time this term is generally considered to be pejorative and anthropologically inaccurate. Medicine man is preferred, especially as not all traditional peoples approve of the use of shaman as a generic term, given that the word comes from a specific place and people. When people are ill or are of ill-health, it is advised they see a medical doctor first, rather than a shaman (for obvious reasons).

History

witch doctor tribe from Vancouver Island, Canada]] Shamanistic practices are sometimes claimed to predate all organized religions, and certainly date back to the Neolithic period. Aspects of shamanism are encountered in later, organized religions, generally in their mystic and symbolic practices. Greek paganism was influenced by shamanism, as reflected in the stories of Tantalus, Prometheus, Medea, and Calypso among others, as well as in the Eleusinian Mysteries, and other mysteries. Some of the shamanic practices of the Greek religion were later adopted into the Roman religion. The shamanic practices of many cultures were marginalized with the spread of Christianity. In Europe, starting around 400, the Christian church was instrumental in the collapse of the Greek and Roman religions. Temples were systematically destroyed and key ceremonies were outlawed or appropriated. The Early Modern witch trials may have further eliminated lingering remnants of European shamanism. The repression of shamanism continued as Christian influence spread with Spanish colonization. In the Caribbean, and Central and South America, Catholic priests followed in the footsteps of the Conquistadors and were instrumental in the destruction of the local traditions, denouncing practitioners as "devil worshippers" and having them executed. In North America, the English Puritans conducted periodic campaigns against individuals perceived as witches. More recently, attacks on shamanic practitioners have been carried out at the hands of Christian missionaries to third world countries and by the United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) against its own citizens. As recently as the nineteen seventies, historic petroglyphs were being defaced by missionaries in the Amazon. A similarly destructive story can be told of the encounter between Buddhists and shamans, e.g., in Mongolia. It has been postulated that modern state campaigns against the use of entheogenic substances are the offshoot of previous religious campaigns against shamanism. Today, shamanism, once possibly universal, survives primarily among indigenous peoples. Shamanic practice continues today in the tundras, jungles, deserts, and other rural areas, and also in cities, towns, suburbs, and shantytowns all over the world. This is especially widespread in Africa as well as South America, where "mestizo shamanism" is widespread. Many recent efforts have been made trying to link shamanic practice and knowledge with Western, scientific beliefs. Anthropologist Jeremy Narby has proposed that shamans take their consciousness down to the molecular level, working with DNA and viruses that they see as the twin serpents or malicious "darts". The holomovement theory proposed by David Bohm is often seen as an approach to create a scientific foundation for concepts such as parallel worlds and alternative ways to traverse time and space.

Asia

There is a strong shamanistic influence in the Bön religion of central Asia, and in Tibetan Buddhism. Buddhism became popular with shamanic peoples such as the Tibetans, Mongols and Manchu beginning in the eighth century. Forms of shamanistic ritual combined with Tibetan Buddhism became institutionalized as the state religion under the Chinese Yuan dynasty and Qing dynasty. One common element of shamanism and Buddhism is the attainment of spiritual realization, at times mediated by entheogenic (psychedelic) substances.

Americas

In Native American groups, only the shaman had the power to commune with the gods or spirits, to mediate between them and ordinary mortals, to talk with the souls on behalf of the living. The shaman, man or woman, was often an extraordinary character, both in physical appearance and in acting talents. He would be a mystic, poet, sage, healer of the sick, guardian of the tribe, and the repository of stories. Those who did not possess the full range of the shamanistic attributes became simply "medicine men", and functioned as respected healers. To become a shaman, a person had to "receive the call", to suffer a religious experience, and would then be initiated into the mysteries of the art. By symbolic death and resurrection, he acquired a new mode of being; his physical and mental frame underwent a thorough change. During this period of initiation, the novice would see the spirits of the universe and leave his body like a spirit, soaring through the heavens and underworld. There he would be introduced to the different spirits and taught which to address in future trances. According to Mircea Eliade's book "Shamanism", during the initiation, spirits would take the shaman's old bones and replace them with new ones. Since sickness was thought to be caused by an evil spirit entering the victim's body, the shaman would call it out in order to affect a cure. He would do so by a special ritual, beating a rhythm on his drum, swaying and chanting steadily increasing the sound and interspersing it with long drawn out sighs, groans, and hysterical laughter.

Aspects of the practice

Different forms of shamanism are found around the world, and practitioners are also known as medicine men or women, as well as witch doctors.

Initiation and learning

In Shamanic cultures, the shaman plays a priest-like role; however, there is an essential difference between the two, as Joseph Campbell describes: :"The priest is the socially initiated, ceremonially inducted member of a recognized religious organization, where he holds a certain rank and functions as the tenant of an office that was held by others before him, while the shaman is one who, as a consequence of a personal psychological crisis, has gained a certain power of his own." (1969, p. 231) A shaman may be initiated via a serious illness, by being struck by lightning, or by a near-death experience (e.g., the shaman Black Elk), and there usually is a set of cultural imagery expected to be experienced during shamanic initiation regardless of method. According to Mircea Eliade, such imagery often includes being transported to the spirit world and interacting with beings inhabiting it, meeting a spiritual guide, being devoured by some being and emerging transformed, and/or being "dismantled" and "reassembled" again, often with implanted amulets such as magical crystals. The imagery of initiation generally speaks of transformation and granting powers, and often entails themes of death and rebirth. In some societies shamanic powers are considered to be inherited, whereas in others shamans are considered to have been "called": Among the Siberian Chukchis one may behave in ways that Western clinicians would characterize as psychotic, but which Siberian culture interprets as possession by a spirit who demands that one assume the shamanic vocation. Among the South American Tapirape shamans are called in their dreams. In other societies shamans choose their career: First Nations would seek communion with spirits through a "vision quest"; South American Shuar, seeking the power to defend their family against enemies, apprentice themselves to accomplished shamans.

Shamanic illness

Shamanic illness, also called shamanistic inititatory crisis, is a psycho-spiritual crisis, or a rite of passage, observed among those becoming shamans. The episode often marks the beginning of a time-limited episode of confusion or disturbing behavior where the shamanic initiate might sing or dance in an unconventional fashion, or have an experience of being "disturbed by spirits". The symptoms are usually not considered to be signs of mental illness by interpreters in the shamanic culture; rather, they are interpreted as introductory signposts for the individual who is meant to take the office of shaman (Lukoff et.al, 1992).

Practice and method

The shaman plays the role of healer in shamanic societies; shamans gain knowledge and power by traversing the axis mundi and bringing back knowledge from the heavens. Even in western society, this ancient practice of healing is referenced by the use of the caduceus as the symbol of medicine. Oftentimes the shaman has, or acquires, one or more familiar helping entities in the spirit world; these are often spirits in animal form, spirits of healing plants, or (sometimes) those of departed shamans. In many shamanic societies, magic, magical force, and knowledge are all denoted by one word, such as the Quechua term "yachay". While the causes of disease are considered to lie in the spiritual realm, being effected by malicious spirits or witchcraft, both spiritual and physical methods are used to heal. Commonly, a shaman will "enter the body" of the patient to confront the spirit making the patient sick, and heal the patient by banishing the infectious spirit. Many shamans have expert knowledge of the plant life in their area, and an herbal regimen is often prescribed as treatment. In many places shamans claim to learn directly from the plants, and to be capable of harnessing their effects and healing properties only after obtaining permission from its abiding or patron spirit. In South America, individual spirits are summoned by the singing of songs called icaros; before a spirit can be summoned the spirit must teach the shaman its song. The use of totem items such as rocks is common; these items are believed to have special powers and an animating spirit. Such practices are presumably very ancient; in about 368 BCE, Plato wrote in the Phaedrus that the "first prophecies were the words of an oak", and that everyone who lived at that time found it rewarding enough to "listen to an oak or a stone, so long as it was telling the truth". The belief in witchcraft and sorcery, known as brujeria in South America, is prevalent in many shamanic societies. Some societies distinguish shamans who cure from sorcerers who harm; others believe that all shamans have the power to both cure and kill; that is, shamans are in some societies also thought of as being capable of harm. The shaman usually enjoys great power and prestige in the community, and is renowned for their powers and knowledge; but they may also be suspected of harming others and thus feared. By engaging in this work, the shaman exposes himself to significant personal risk, from the spirit world, from any enemy shamans, as well as from the means employed to alter his state of consciousness. Certain of the plant materials used can be fatal, and the failure to return from an out-of-body journey can lead to physical death. Spells are commonly used to protect against these dangers, and the use of more dangerous plants is usually very highly ritualized.

Shamanic technology

Generally, the shaman traverses the axis mundi and enters the spirit world by effecting a change of consciousness in himself, entering into an ecstatic trance, either autohypnotically or through the use of entheogens. The methods used are diverse, and often are used in conjunction with each other. Some of the methods for effecting such altered states of consciousness are:
- Drumming
- Singing
- Fasting
- Sweat lodge
- Vision quests / vigils
- Dancing / Spinning (game)
- Use of "power plants" such as
- Tobacco
- Fly Agaric
- Psychedelic Mushrooms Alluded to euphemistically as "holy children" by Mazatec shamans such as Maria Sabina.
- Peyote
- San Pedro Named thus (St. Peter) by Andean natives because he's the guardian of Gates of Heaven (Quechua name: Huachuma)
- Ayahuasca Quechua for "Vine of the Dead"
- Iboga
- Datura
- Morning Glory
- Salvia Divinorum
- Cannabis Shamans often observe special diets or fasts and taboos particular to their vocation. Sometimes these have physical purposes beyond effecting a change in brain state or taboo; for example, the diet followed by shamans and apprentices when drinking Ayahuasca includes eating foods rich in tryptophan (which produces serotonin) as well as avoiding foods rich in tyramine, which could cause a hypertensive crisis if ingested with an MAOI such as Ayahuasca.

Gender and sexuality

Most shamans are men, but there are societies in which women may be shamans. In Old Norse Religion, shamanism was seen as unmanly and was practiced mainly by women (see Völvas and Wiccas). However, in Old Norse mythology, the supreme god Odin was also seen as the foremost shaman. In some societies, shamans exhibit a two-spirit identity, assuming the dress and attributes of the opposite sex from a young age, for example, a man taking on the role of a wife in an otherwise ordinary marriage. This practice is common, and found among the Chukchee, Sea Dyak, Patagonians, Aruacanians, Arapaho, Cheyenne, Navajo, Pawnee, Lakota, and Ute, as well as many other Native American tribes. Such two-spirit shamans are thought to be especially powerful. They are highly respected and sought out in their tribes, as they will bring high status to their mates.

Shamanism and New Age

The New Age movement imported some ideas from shamanism as well as Eastern religions. As in other such imports, the original users of these ideas frequently condemn New Age use as misunderstood and superficial. At the same time, there is an endeavor in occult and esoteric circles to reinvent shamanism in a modern form, drawing from core shamanism, a set of beliefs and practices synthesized by Michael Harner and often revolving around the use of ritual drumming and dance; various indigenous forms of shamanism, often focusing on the ritual use of entheogens; as well as chaos magic. Much of this is focused upon in Europe, where ancient shamanic traditions were suppressed by the Christian church and where people compelled to be shamans often find it improper to use shamanic systems rooted in other parts of the earth. Various traditional shamans express respect for this endeavor, sharply distinguishing it from "light" New Age shamanism. Sometimes people from Western cultures claim to be shamans (i.e., Wicca, Neo-Paganism). This is considered offensive by many indigenous medicine men, who view these New Age, western "shamans" as hucksters out for money or affirmation of self. Many shamanistic cultures feel there is a danger that their voices will be drowned out by self-styled "shamans," citing, for example, the fact that Lynn Andrews has sold more books than all Native American authors put together.

External links

- [http://www.buryatmongol.com/shamanism.html Buryat-Mongol Shamanism]
- DMOZ's Religion and Spirituality : [http://dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Shamanism/ Shamanism]
- [http://www.deoxy.org/shaman.htm General shamanism page with American traditions dominant]
- [http://www.kondor.de/indexe.html Flight of the Condor - Contemporary Shamanism] Large collection of essays and teachings from a contemporary shaman
- [http://www.haidukpress.com/tantalus/index.html The story of Tantalus] a shamanic story from Greek mythology.
- [http://www.thefourwinds.com/store.htm Dance of the Four Winds: Secrets of the Medicine Wheel] In this riveting narrative of spiritual discovery Dr. Alberto Villoldo journeys to Peru to investigate the practices used by Indian shamans to access the four paths of the Medicine Wheel ISBN 0892815140
- [http://www.shamanismcanada.com Shamanism Training in North America] - Links to articles on contemporary shamanic practice and trainings.
- [http://www.androphile.org/preview/Culture/NativeAmerica/amerindian.htm The Two-Spirit Tradition] Two-Spirit Shamanism in North America.
- [http://www.breakingopenthehead.com Breaking Open the Head: A Psychedelic Journey into the Heart of Contemporary Shamanism] - Complements book (see below) and offers public discussion forums.
- [http://www.shamanism.dk Scandinavian Center of Shamanic Studies] - Dedicated to the contemporary practice of shamanism
- [http://www.spiritplants.org Spiritplants Refuge] - Public forums
- [http://www.geocities.com/the_wanderling/how.html POWER OF THE SHAMAN] - Where Does It Come From, How Does It Work? Category:Spirituality ja:シャーマニズム

Hunting

Category:NPOV disputes :This article is about the hunting of prey by human society. For other uses of the word "hunting", see Hunting (disambiguation). "Hunter" and "huntress" redirect here; for other uses of these words, see Hunter (disambiguation) and Huntress (disambiguation). Hunting is most commonly applied to the practice of pursuing animals to capture or kill them for food, sport, or trade in their products. Hunting should be distinguished from poaching which is the killing, trapping or capture of game animals contrary to law. Animals so hunted are referred to as game animals. By definition, hunting excludes the killing of individual animals that have become dangerous to humans and the killing of vermin as a means of pest control. Although hunting also technically excludes wildlife management to maintain a population of animals within an environment's carrying capacity, regulatory and licensing bodies may restrict the bag limit such that only animals in excess of the environment's carrying capacity may be harvested.

History

wildlife management

Old roots

In ancient societies, before the widespread domestication of animals, hunting was generally vital for survival as part of the hunter-gatherer way of life. For most humans before the development of agriculture, hunting would have provided an important source of protein to augment the foraged plants and vegetables that made up the majority of their diet. In addition, animal hides were used for clothing and shelters. The earliest hunting weapons would have included rocks, the Atlatl and bow and arrows. Even when animal domestication became relatively widespread, hunting was usually a significant contributor to the food supply available to a population. In addition, animal parts such as hides and horns were utilized in clothing and tools, and not all of these products could be provided from the domestication of animals. The importance of hunting in ancient societies is represented by deities such as the Greek Artemis alias the Roman Diana (both lunar goddesses, among the twelve major divinities with an equivalent in nearly every ancient Mediterranean culture) or Cernunnos, the Horned God. The mythological association of a prey species with a divinity could be reflected in hunting restrictions, often a 'reserve' surrounding its temple(s). Hunter-gathering cultures existed along-side agrarian societies with whom they traded. This did not always result in a cultural transition from hunting-gathering to agrarian domestication. Also, in chilly climates, the hides or furs of animals would be used as clothing (see trapping). The Inuit peoples in the Arctic could produce complicated parkas consisting of up to 60 stitched pieces capable of with-standing sub-zero temperatures. From the skins of sea mammals they produced, and still produce, water-proof kayaks, clothing, gloves and footwear. With domestication of the dog, birds of prey and the ferret, various forms of animal-aided hunting developed including venery (scent hound hunting, such as fox hunting), coursing (sight hound hunting), falconry and ferreting. These are all associated with medieval hunting; in time various dog breeds were selected for very precise tasks during the hunt, reflected in such names as pointer and setter. As hunting moved from a strictly necessary activity for survival to one of many staples of society, two trends emerged. One was that of the specialist hunter - a position previously held by just about every able-bodied male (usually) in the society. As domesticated farming and herding took hold, hunting became one of many trades to be pursued by those with the necessary training. The other trend was the emergence of hunting as a sport. As game became more of a luxury than a dietary necessity, the pursuit of it could equally well be considered a luxury pursuit. Still dangerous hunting, as for lions or wild boars, usually on horseback (or from a chariot, as in Pharaonic Egypt and Mesopotamia) also had a similar function as tournaments and various manly sports: an honourable, often somewhat competetive passtime helping the aristocracy in peace time to practice in the skills of warfare. warfare warfare In most parts of medieval Europe, the upper-class (aristocracy and higher clergy) obtained as proud privilege the sole rights to hunt (and sometimes fish) in certain areas of a feudal territory. Game in these areas was certainly used as a source of food and furs, often provided via professional huntsmen; but it was also expected to provide a form of recreation for the aristocracy. The importance of this proprietary view of game can be seen in the Robin Hood legends, in which one of the primary charges against the outlaws is that they "hunt the King's deer".

Modern Hunting for Sport

In time, this aristocratic type of hunting lost its roots as a source of food and supplies, while retaining its prestigious nature as a sport, eagerly adopted by the rising bourgeoisie. Hunting in North America in the 1800s was done primarily as a way to supplement food supplies. The safari method of hunting was a development of sport hunting that saw elaborate travel in Africa, India and other places in pursuit of trophies. In modern times, trophy hunting persists, but is frowned upon by some when it involves rare or endangered species of animal. Other people also object to trophy hunting in general because it is seen as a senseless act of killing another living thing for recreation, rather than food. Advocates of trophy hunting disagree. They state that the vast majority of the edible portions of the animal are consumed by the hunters themselves or given to local inhabitants. This along with fees paid to hunt contribute to the local economy and provide value to animals that would otherwise be seen as competition for grazing, livestock, and crops [http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2005/10/06/MNG1UF392D1.DTL]. In Tanzania it is estimated that safari hunter spends 50-100 times that of the average eco-tourist and at a lower environmental impact. The average photo tourist demands luxury accommodations and at a higher number of visitors to make the endeavor financially viable. In contrast the average safari hunter travels on foot, staying in tented camps and in vastly smaller numbers. Safari hunters are also more likely to use remote areas, uninviting to the average eco-tourist. Having these hunters there allows for anti-poaching activities and revenue for local communities [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1076/is_5_41/ai_54895821/pg_5]. In the 1800s southern and central European hunters often pursued game only for a trophy, usually the head or pelt of an animal, to be displayed as a sign of prowess. The rest of the animal was often wasted. In contrast, in relatively scarcely populated northern Europe, hunting has remained the tradition of the common people, and still serves a purpose as a means of acquiring meat, although the standard of living does not require it; Eating game is generally considered a healthier and more ethical alternative to the exploitation of farmed animals. In the Nordic countries, hunting for trophies was, and still is frowned upon, but an impressive trophy is considered a bonus. This is perhaps the most common practice of modern hunters worldwide.

Specific hunting traditions

Shikar (India)

During the feudal and colonial epoch on the Indian continent, hunting was a true 'kingly sport' in the numerous princely states, as many (maha)rajas etc. maintained a whole corps, attached to their court, of shikaris, i.e. native professional hunterssince these had to be armed (not unlike he common lancer units; both could be mounted), they might also double as a supplementary police corps or military contingent. Often these were recruited from the normally low-ranking local pre-Aryan tribes (e.g. Bhils in Rajasthan's premier kingdom Mewar), because of their traditional knowledge of environment, techniques etc., but thus could be closer then most subjects to the ruler, who would often hunt big game (preferably the emperor of Asians wildlife, the (Bengal) tiger) in majestic style: on the back of an elephant, often commandeering extra helpers as drivers to scare the game out of the grass or jungle till it came within gun reach. As hunting was an important princely pass-time, worthy hunting lodges were constructed (not unlike feudal Europe) After European guests of these princes had enjoyed the honour of talking part in these elephant hunts, some colonial Sahibs started organizing their own, and tiger numbers especially dwindled alarmingly. Fortunately, the independent republics (and neighbouring Himalayan monarchies, as Nepal) became wise enough to curb such massively disturbing 'expeditions', for the threat of poching may still mean the unnecessary end of more species and habitats then have already been lost forever.

Safari

A safari (from Swahili word meaning a long journey) is an overland journey (especially in Africa). Safari as a distinctive way of hunting was popularized by US author Ernest Hemingway and president Theodore Roosevelt. It is a several days or even weeks-lasting journey and camping in the bush or jungle, while pursuing big game. Nowadays, it's often used to describe tours through African national parks to watch or hunt wildlife. Hunters are usually tourists, accompanied by professional local guide, skinners and porters in more difficult terrains. A special safari type is the solo-safari where all the license acquiring, stalking, preparation and outfitting is done by the hunter himself. Among trophy hunters, those who outfitted the safaris themselves would receive the greatest admiration. On the rise, even before integral ecotourism was, is the animal-friendly version known as photo-safari, where the only shots aimed at wildlife come from camera lenses. The synonym Bloodless hunt for hunting with the use of film and a still photo camera was first used by the Polish photographer Włodzimierz Puchalski Category: Hunting Category:Photography by genre

United Kingdom

The practice of British fox hunting is a prime example of sport hunting; the fox is not eaten, and the skin is rarely preserved afterwards. Fox hunting originally developed as a means of vermin control to protect livestock. In Victorian times it also became a popular sport of the upper classes. It now attracts followers from all walks of life. Mounted followers join in on horseback and foot-followers walk or cycle, others follow by car, stopping to view the hunt from suitable vantage points. Fox hunting attract strong feelings. Some animal rights supporters feel it causes suffering to the fox and is both cruel and unnecessary, but no cruelty evidence was forthcoming when the legislation was drawn up. Most members of the farming and rural communities in which it takes place feel it is an integral and useful part of rural life, providing an important contribution to prevent vermin from killing farm animals especially at lambing time and providing an important contribution to social life for local people. In 2002 the Scottish Parliament passed an act banning fox hunting and other forms of hunting with hounds. On September 15th 2004 the British Parliament followed Scotland's lead and passed a similar ban for England and Wales under the Hunting Act 2004, which took effect from February 18 2005. The British Government forced the ban into law using the Parliament Act. Some hunting activists have declared their intention to break the law and continue hunting with hounds, and others are 'hunting within the law' and thereby showing the law to be flawed, illogical and unenforcable.

Hunting in the United States

In the United States, hunting is a sport not associated with any particular class or culture. Today's hunters come from a broad range of economic, social, and cultural backgrounds. In 2001, over 13 million hunters averaged eighteen days hunting and spent over $20.5 billion on their sport. Modern North American hunting has been strongly influenced by organizations such as the Boone and Crocket Club, founded in 1887 to discourage commercial hunting, promote conservation and the "fair chase" ethic of hunting "individual animals in a manner that conserves, protects, and perpetuates the hunted population." In the United States, hunters are encouraged to take a hunters safety course. There are many good courses taught by hunters and they teach the responsibilities of a good sportsman. On television there is a show on OLN called Hunters Handbook that shows hunting safety and new hunting products. Modern hunters see themselves as conservationists. Each year, nearly $200 million in hunters' federal excise taxes are distributed to State agencies to support wildlife management programs, the purchase of lands open to hunters, and hunter education and safety classes. Proceeds from the Federal Duck Stamp, a required purchase for migratory waterfowl hunters, have purchased more than 5 million acres (20,000 km²) of habitat for the refuge system lands that support waterfowl and many other wildlife species, and are often open to hunting. The $200 million is the federal portion only and does not include monies collected by the states for hunting licenses. Local hunting clubs and national conservation organizations protect the future of wildlife by setting aside millions of acres of habitat and speaking up for conservation in Washington and State capitals [http://www.fws.gov/hunting/whatdo.html]. Two such private organizations are Ducks Unlimited [http://www.ducks.org] and Delta Waterfowl [http://www.deltawaterfowl.org]. Hunting of mammals such as deer, elk and small game is regulated by the states. Hunting of migratory waterfowl (ducks, geese, and others) is regulated by the Federal government under treaties with Canada and Mexico since the birds do not recognize international political boundaries. The states usually adminster the federally-set regulations. One task of Federal and state park rangers and game wardens is to enforce laws and regulations related to hunting, included species protection, hunting seasons, and hunting bans. Hunting can be an important tool for wildlife management. Hunting gives resource managers a valuable tool to control populations of some species that might otherwise exceed the carrying capacity of their habitat and threaten the well-being of other wildlife species, and in some instances, that of human health and safety [http://www.fws.gov/hunting/]. Hunting reduces the annual crop of new animals and birds to allow the remaining animals sufficient feed and shelter to survive. An example of using hunters in wildlife management can be found in the "Snow, Blue and Ross' Goose Conservation Order 2005." [http://www.agfc.com/rules_regs/hunting_regs_migratory_conservation_order.html] The Conservation Order allows hunters, after all other waterfowl seasons are closed, to shoot an unlimited number of these species of geese. The reason for the Conservation Order is that these species have grown so numerous that they are destroying the Arctic environment which many species of animals use as breeding grounds. Many Native American hunters claim subsistence hunting rights as a traditional part of their culture. In certain cases (such as the Marine Mammal Protection Act), Federal law provides protection for Native Americans. This is particularly true in Alaska, where people still feed on sea and land mammals as well as fish and birds. It is common for rural Alaska Native communities to obtain 50-90% of their daily protein from hunting. Varmint hunting is the killing of animals seen as pests and animals that are not normally considered as game species. While not an efficient form of pest control (poisoning and trapping are much more effective), it does provide recreation and is currently the fastest growing area of hunting. Varmint species are often responsible for detrimental effects on crops, livestock, landscaping, infrastructure, and pets. Animals may be utilized for fur or meat, but often no use is made of the carcass. Which species are "varmints" depends on the circumstance and area. Common varmints include various rodents, coyotes, crows, foxes, feral cats, and feral hogs. Some animals once considered varmints are now protected, such as wolves. Animal management authorities sometimes rely on hunting to control certain animal populations. These hunts are sometimes carried out by professional hunters although other hunts include amateurs. Overpopulations of deer in urban parks and bears which have attacked humans might be hunted by animal management authorities. Modern hunting is done with a plethora of weapons. The three most common being:guns, bows, and muzzleloaders. Some prefer bowhunting and bowfishing, as they may consider such hunting methods more challenging.

Depiction of hunt in Popular Culture

While there are numerous hunting shows, television programs, magazines and merchandise, some popular entertainment also condemns sport hunting. This is most obvious in animation which often depicts hunting from the hunted animal's point of view and furthermore has the audience's sympathy as the animal either usually escapes or successfully defends itself. Hence, the hunter is often presented as the antagonist. This can range from the humorous such as Bugs Bunny fighting off Elmer Fudd to the dramatic (and absurdly-inaccurate) as in Bambi. In contrast, filmed depictions of hunting by aboriginal cultures like Native American ones are treated with much more sympathy with the implied idea that they are hunting for what they need to survive and no more. (This "implied idea" actually continues to be the case in many Alaskan Bush communities today.)[http://tunt.blogspot.com/2005/03/30-hunting-for-subsistence.html] Varmint hunting of prairie dogs is depicted in John Ross' novel "Unintended Consequences". A favorable depiction of hunting is found in L.Neil Smith's science fiction novel 'Pallas'.

External links

- [http://www.justinalexander.net/huntingethics.htm Ethics of Hunting] - a philosophy thesis on the ethical arguments for and against hunting, including a section focusing on Christian ethics.
- [http://www.surviveoutdoors.com/reference/huntingsafety.asp Hunting Safety]
- [http://www.fws.gov/ U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service website]
- [http://www.fws.gov/hunting/huntstat.html U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service statistics]
- [http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/ Texas Parks and Wildlife Commission as an example of state agencies]
- [http://www.booneman.com/ Michigan based grassroots hunting, fishing and habitat forum]
- [http://www.boone-crockett.org/huntingEthics/ethics_fairchase.asp?area=huntingEthics Boone and Crockett Club "Fair Chase" Statement]
- [http://www.scifirstforhunters.org/ Safari Club International] Category:Survival skills Category:Blood sports Category:Archery
- ja:狩猟

Tecumseh

: For other uses of the name, see Tecumseh (disambiguation). Tecumseh (disambiguation), popular among the Shawnee at the time, but typically omitted in idealized depictions.]] Tecumseh (c.1768 – October 5, 1813), whose given name might be more accurately rendered as Tecumtha or Tekamthi, was a famous Shawnee leader. He spent much of his life attempting to rally disparate North American Indian tribes in a mutual defense of their lands, which eventually culminated in his death in the War of 1812. Tecumseh was greatly admired in his day, remains a respected icon for Native Americans, and is considered a national hero in Canada. Even his longtime adversary William Henry Harrison considered Tecumseh to be "one of those uncommon geniuses which spring up occasionally to produce revolutions and overturn the established order of things."

Early years

The exact year of Tecumseh's birth is unknown; 1768 is the generally accepted estimate. He was born in the Ohio Country, probably in one of the Shawnee towns along the Scioto River. Nineteenth century traditions (and current Ohio historical markers) placed his birthplace further west, along the Little Miami River, although the Shawnee towns there were not settled until after Tecumseh's birth. Tecumseh's name (which has been translated variously "I Cross the Way" or "A Panther Crouching for His Prey") was a reference to his family clan (or phratry), and not to a passing comet as later traditions claimed. Shawnee children inherited a clan affiliation from their fathers; Tecumseh belonged to the panther clan, one of about a dozen exogamous Shawnee clans. In addition to clans, the Shawnee had five traditional divisions, membership in which was also inherited from the father. Tecumseh's father Pukeshinwah (and thus Tecumseh also) belonged to the Kispoko division. Most traditions state that Tecumseh's mother Methoataaskee was Creek or Cherokee, but biographer John Sugden believes that she was a Shawnee of the Pekowi (Piqua) division. Some of the confusion results from the fact that some Creeks and Cherokees were eager to claim the famous Tecumseh as one of their own; many Creeks named children after him. There is some evidence to suggest that Tecumseh's paternal grandfather (Pukeshinwah's father) may have been a white British trader. Warfare between whites and Indians loomed large in Tecumseh's youth. Pukeshinwah was killed in Lord Dunmore's War at the Battle of Point Pleasant in 1774. In the American Revolutionary War, many Shawnee villages were destroyed by American frontiersmen, including what was likely Tecumseh's boyhood home in the Battle of Piqua in 1780. Tecumseh was raised in part by his older brother Cheeseekau, an important war leader whom Tecumseh probably accompanied in skirmishes against whites in Kentucky and Ohio. About 1790 Tecumseh traveled south with Cheeseekau to live among (and fight alongside) the Chickamauga Cherokees. There Tecumseh met the famous leader Dragging Canoe, who led a resistance movement against U.S. expansion. Tecumseh returned to Ohio in 1792, having fathered a Cherokee daughter before leaving. Back in the Ohio Country, Tecumseh took part in the war to resist further expansion into the Ohio Country by the United States, which ended unsuccesfully at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794. Tecumseh refused to sign the Treaty of Greenville, which ended the war.

"Tecumseh's War"

Treaty of Greenville Tecumseh settled in Greenville with his younger brother Tenskwatawa ("The Prophet"). In 1805, a nativist religious revival led by Tenskwatawa emerged. Tenskwatawa urged natives to reject the ways of the whites, and to refrain from ceding any more lands to the United States. Opposing Tenskwatawa was the Shawnee leader Black Hoof, who was working to maintain a peaceful relationship with the United States. By 1808, tensions with whites and Black Hoof's Shawnees compelled Tenskwatawa and Tecumseh to remove further northwest and establish the village of Prophetstown near the confluence of the Wabash and Tippecanoe Rivers (near present-day Battle Ground, Indiana). Tenskwatawa's religious teachings became widely known, and he attracted American Indian followers from many different nations. Although Tecumseh would eventually emerge as the leader of this pan-tribal confederation, it was built upon a foundation established by the religious appeal of his younger brother. Relatively few of these followers were Shawnees; although Tecumseh is often written about as if he were the leader of the Shawnees, most Shawnees in fact had little involvement with Tecumseh or the Prophet, and chose instead to move further west or to remain at peace with the United States. In September 1809, William Henry Harrison, governor of the newly formed Indiana Territory, negotiated the Treaty of Fort Wayne in which various American Indian leaders sold about 2,500,000 acres (10,000 km²) to the United States. This treaty marked the emergence of Tecumseh as a prominent leader. Although Tecumseh and the Shawnees had no claims on the land sold, he was outraged. Tecumseh revived an idea advocated in previous years by the Shawnee leader Blue Jacket and the Mohawk leader Joseph Brant, which stated that American Indian land was owned in common by all tribes, and thus no land could be sold without agreement by all. Not yet ready to confront the United States directly, Tecumseh's primary adversaries were initially the Native American leaders who had signed the treaty. An impressive orator, Tecumseh began to travel widely, urging warriors to abandon accommodationist chiefs and to join the resistance at Prophetstown. Tecumseh insisted that the Fort Wayne treaty was illegitimate; he asked Harrison to nullify it, and warned that Americans should not attempt to settle the lands sold in the treaty. In August 1811, Tecumseh met with Harrison at Vincennes, assuring him that the Shawnee brothers meant to remain at peace with the United States. Tecumseh then traveled to the south, on a mission to recruit allies among the so-called "Five Civilized Tribes." Most of the southern nations rejected his appeals, but a faction among the Creeks, who came to be known as the Red Sticks, answered his call to arms, leading to the Creek War. While Tecumseh was in the south, Governor Harrison marched up the Wabash River from Vincennes with more than 1,000 men, on an expedition to intimidate the Prophet and his followers. On November 6 1811, Harrison's army arrived outside Prophetstown. Tenskwatawa sent out his warriors against the American encampment that night. In the Battle of Tippecanoe, Harrison's men held their ground, and the Indians withdrew from the village after the battle. The victorious Americans burned the town and returned to Vincennes. The battle was a severe blow for Tenskwatawa, who lost prestige and the confidence of his brother. Although it was a significant setback, Tecumseh began to secretly rebuild his alliance upon his return from the south. Now that the Americans were also at war with the British in the War of 1812, "Tecumseh's War" became a part of that struggle. The American effort to neutralize potential British-Indian cooperation had backfired, instead making Tecumseh and his followers more fully committed to an alliance with the British.

War of 1812

Tecumseh joined British Major-General Sir Isaac Brock to force the surrender of Detroit in August 1812, a major victory for the British. Tecumseh's acumen in warfare was evident in this engagement. As Brock advanced to a point just out of range of Detroit's guns, Tecumseh had his warriors parade out from a nearby wood and circle around to repeat the maneuver, making it appear that there were many more than was actually the case. The fort commander, Brigadier General William Hull, surrendered in fear of massacre by American Indians should he refuse. This victory was reversed a little over a year later, however, as Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry's victory on Lake Erie, late in the summer of 1813, cut British supply lines and prompted them to withdraw. The British burned the public buildings in Detroit and retreated into Upper Canada along the Thames Valley. Tecumseh followed, fighting rearguard actions to slow the US advance. The next British commander, Major-General Henry Procter did not have the same working relationship with Tecumseh as his predecessor. Procter failed to appear at Chatham, Ontario as expected by the Native Americans. Harrison crossed into Upper Canada in October, 1813 and won a victory over the British and the Native Americans at the Battle of the Thames near Chatham. Tecumseh was killed in the battle and, shortly after, the tribes of his confederacy surrendered to Harrison at Detroit.

Miscellaneous

Tributes

In June 1930, a bronze replica of the figurehead of ship-of-the-line USS Delaware was presented by the Class of 1891 to the United States Naval Academy. This bust, one of the most famous relics on the campus, has been widely identified as Tecumseh. However, when it adorned the American man-of-war, it commemorated not Tecumseh but Tamanend, the revered Delaware chief who welcomed William Penn to America when he arrived in Delaware country on 2 October 1682. Despite his defeat, Tecumseh is honoured in Canada as a tragic hero who was a brilliant war chief who, along with Brock, saved Canada from US invasion when all seemed hopeless, but could not save his own people. Among the tributes is his placing in The Greatest Canadian list where Tecumseh is ranked #37.

Namings

- Cities and Towns
- Tecumseh, Kansas
- Tecumseh, Michigan
- Tecumseh, Nebraska
- Tecumseh, Oklahoma
- Tecumseh, Ontario
- Geography
- Mount Tecumseh, New Hampshire
- Mount Tecumseh, Alberta
- People
- The Union US Civil War general William Tecumseh Sherman, like Tecumseh also born in Ohio, was named "Tecumseh Sherman" at birth, but his foster parents insisted on adding a more conventional "Christian name".
- Ships and Military Units
- US ballistic missile submarine USS Tecumseh (SSBN-628)
- Calgary-based Canadian Naval Reserve Unit HMCS Tecumseh.
- Companies
- Public Institutions
- Tecumseh Branch of the Allen County Public Library in Fort Wayne, Indiana
- Numerous schools in the US and Canada
- A Royal Navy gunboat was built in 1814 and named HMS Tecumseth. It was laid up after the end of the War of 1812 and sank in Penetanguishene Harbour. A replica based on the original design is in Penetanguishene, Ontario.
- Camp Tecumseh, the fourth largest YMCA camp in the nation, is located in Brookston, Indiana.

Tecumseh in fiction

One of the main characters in Orson Scott Card's alternate history fantasy series of novels The Tales of Alvin Maker is based on Tecumseh, where he is called Ta-Kumsaw (especially the second book in the series, Red Prophet). The Frontiersmen: A Narrative (1967) and A Sorrow in Our Heart: The Life of Tecumseh (1992) by Allan W. Eckert are popular books that feature Tecumseh as a main character. Eckert's books are marketed as non-fiction, although academic historians generally regard them as fiction. Tecumseh!, also written by Eckert, is an outdoor drama located just outside of Chillicothe, Ohio. The drama highlights Tecumseh's struggle against early settlers in the Ohio River valley; a centerpiece of the story is a relationship (entirely fictional) between Tecumseh and a young white woman who falls in love with him. More than two million people have seen Tecumseh! in Sugarloaf Amphitheatre since 1973. More information can be found at [http://www.tecumsehdrama.com Tecumsehdrama.com] The famous Tecumseh anthology by Fritz Steuben is a fictional work, but it is known for the good source research the author did. It consists of 8 books which cover Tecumsehs whole life, from his youth Tecumseh - The Flying Arrow (1930) to his death Tecumseh - Tecumsehs Death (1951).

Quotations

Then listen to the voice of duty, of honour, of nature and of your endangered country. Let us form one body, one head and defend to the last warrior our country, our homes, our liberty, and the graves of our fathers. — Tecumseh, circa 1813 A more ... gallant Warrior does not, I believe, exist. — Major-General Sir Isaac Brock

References

Numerous biographies of Tecumseh have been written, but most are full of errors and mythology. — R. David Edmunds.
- Dowd, Gregory Evans. A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745-1815. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992.
- Edmunds, R. David. Tecumseh and the Quest for Indian Leadership. Boston: Little Brown, 1984.
- Gilbert, Bill. God Gave us This Country: Tekamthi and the First American Civil War. New York: Atheneum, 1989.
- Sugden, John. Tecumseh: A Life. New York: Holt, 1997.

Notes

# Quoted in Sugden, p. 215. # Sugden, pp. 22-3. # Sugden, pp. 13-15; Dowd, p. 198.

External links

- [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=36806 Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online]
- [http://www.shawnee-traditions.com/Tecumseh.html "The Family of Tecumseh"], scholarly essay by Noel Schutz, PhD.
- [http://www.tecumsehdrama.com Tecumseh!], the outdoor drama. Category:Native American leaders Category:Shawnee tribe Category:Canadian historical figures Category:Indiana history Tecumseh Tecumseh

Creek War

The Creek War (1813–1814), also known as the Red Stick War and the Creek Civil War, began as a civil war within the Creek (Muscogee) nation. It is sometimes considered to be part of the War of 1812.

Background

On September 30, 1811, Shawnee leader, Tecumseh, arrived at a Creek council meeting filled with Indians from the Southeastern Tribes, Federal Indian Agents, as well as British and American spies. Tecumseh preached his message of a unified Indian resistance of the encroaching American settlers. He urged the listeners to arm themselves and to return to a more traditional way of life by rejecting white culture. Big Warrior, a head Creek chief, questioned Tecumseh’s arguments and veiled meanings. Tecumseh became angry, but before leaving, he stomped his foot on the ground, and proclaimed that the resulting tremors would shake the entire Mississippi Valley. On December 11, 1811, the New Madrid Earthquake shook the Creek lands and the mid-west. While the interpretation of this event varied from tribe to tribe, and from religion to religion, one consensus was universally accepted. The powerful earthquake had to have meant something. Creeks known as Red Sticks sought aggressively to return their society to a traditional way of life. Red Stick leaders such as William Weatherford (Red Eagle), Peter McQueen, and Menawa, who were allies of the British, violently clashed with other chiefs within the Creek Nation over white encroachment on Creek lands and the "civilizing" programs administered by U.S. Indian Agent Benjamin Hawkins. Before the Creek Civil War began, the Red Sticks attempted to keep their activities secret from the old Chiefs. In February 1813, a small party of Red Sticks led by Little Warrior were returning from Detroit when they massacred two families of settlers along the Ohio. Hawkins demanded that the Creek turn over Little Warrior and his six companions. Instead of handing the marauders over to the federal agents, the old Chiefs decided to execute the murderers themselves. This decision was the spark which ignited the civil war between the Creeks. The Creeks from the upper towns (Red Sticks) immediately conquered several lower towns within the Creek Nation. The lower towns had taken conscious steps to assimilate themselves into white culture by raising domesticated animals, farming, and using spinning looms. The Red Sticks destroyed everything that they perceived to have come from the white man such as the towns' domesticated animals, pots and pans, and homespun cloths. However the Red Sticks were not above confiscating the guns and steel blades that they found. The first clashes between Red Sticks and the American whites took place when a group of American soliders stopped a party of Red Sticks who were returning from Florida on July 21, 1813. The Red Sticks had received munitions from the Spanish Governor at Pensacola. The Red Sticks fled the scene and the soldiers looted what they found. The Creeks who saw the Americans looting retaliated with a surprise attack. The Battle of Burnt Corn, as the exchange became known, broadened the Creek Civil War to include American forces. In retaliation, Peter McQueen led an attack on Fort Mims, north of Mobile on August 30, 1813. The Red Sticks' goal was to strike at mixed blood Creeks that had taken refuge at the fort. Despite efforts of some of the Creek leaders, a massacre occurred that left 400 to 500 dead. Panic spread throughout the American Southeastern frontier which demanded government intervention. Federal forces were busy fighting the British and the Northern Woodland tribes led by the Shawnee so Southern States called up their militias to deal with the threat.

Opposing forces

After Burnt Corn, US Secretary of War John Armstrong notified General Thomas Pinckney, Commander of the 6th Military District, that the United States was prepared to take action against the Creek Nation. Further, if Spain were found to be supporting the Creeks, a strike against Pensacola would be justified. Georgia began its preparations by establishing a line of forts along the Chattahoochee River—the modern border between Alabama and Georgia. This action would protect the frontier and allow time to prepare an offensive. Brigadier General Ferdinand Clairborne, a Militia Commander in the Mississippi Territory, recognized the weakness of his sector on the western border of the Creek territory, and advocated a series of preemptive strikes. However, Major General Thomas Flourney, Commander of 7th Military District, continually refused these request and reminded Clairborne that the American strategy in that sector was defensive. Meanwhile, settlers in that region sought refuge in blockhouses. In response to the massacre at Fort Mims, the Tennessee legislature authorized Governor William (Willie) Blount to raise 5,000 militia for a three-month tour of duty. Blount called out a force of 2,500 West Tennessee men under Andrew Jackson to "repel an approaching invasion ... and to afford aid and relief to ... Mississippi Territory". He also summoned a force of 2,500 from East Tennessee under Major General John Cocke. Jackson and Cocke were not ready to move until early October. In addition to the actions of Tennessee, Georgia, and Mississippi, Indian Agent Benjamin Hawkins organized the friendly (Lower Town) Creeks under Major William McIntosh to aid the Georgia and Tennessee militias during their actions against the Red Sticks. At the request of Chief Federal Agent Return J. Meigs, known as White Eagle for the color of his hair, the Cherokee Nation voted to join the Americans in their fight against the Red Sticks. 200 Cherokee under the command of Major Ridge fought with the Tennessee Militia under Andrew Jackson. By count of towns, the Upper Creek constituted about two thirds of the Creek Nation. Their towns were along the Alabama, Coosa, and Tallapoosa Rivers in the heart of Alabama. They were settled along the Chattahoochee River. Many Creek tried to remain friendly to the United States; but, after Fort Mims, few Americans in the southeast made any distinction between friendly and unfriendly Creeks. The Red Stick force consisted of at most 4,000 warriors, possessing perhaps 1,000 guns. They had never been involved in a large scale war, even with their neighbors. Early in the war, General Cocke observed that arrows "form a very principal part of the enemy's arms for warfare, every man having a bow with a bundle of arrows, which is used after the first fire with the gun until a leisure time for loading offers". The Holy Ground (Hickory Ground), located at the junction of the Tallapoosa and Coosa Rivers, was the heart of the Red Stick Confederation. It was about 150 miles from the nearest supply point available to any of the three American armies. The easiest attack route was from Georgia through the line of forts on the frontier and then along a good road that led to the Upper Creek towns near the Holy Ground. Another route was north from Mobile along the Alabama river. The most difficult, Jackson's route of advance, was south from Tennessee through a mountainous and pathless terrain.

The War

Alabama river Outnumbered and poorly armed, the Red Sticks put up a desperate fight from their wilderness strongholds, but valor and the magic of their prophets failed to halt the converging armies. However, because there was no real direction from Washington or coordination between the state militias, the war did not end as quickly as it could have. By the end of 1813, 7,000 men from three armies had entered Creek territory and killed 800 warriors. However, they had not destroyed the towns which were the center of the Red Sticks power.

Tennesee militia

Although Jackson's mission was to defeat the Creek, his larger objective was to move on Pensacola. Jackson's plan was to move south, build roads, destroy Upper Creek towns and then later proceed to Mobile to stage an attack on Pensacola. He had two problems: logistics and short enlistments. When Jackson began his advance, the Tennessee River was low, making it difficult to move supplies and there was little forage for his horses. Jackson departed Fayetteville, Tennessee on October 7 1813. He joined his cavalry in Huntsville and crossed the Tennessee, establishing Fort Deposit. He then marched to the Coosa and built his advanced base at Fort Strother. Jackson's first successful actions, the battles of Tallushatchee and Talladega, occurred in November. However, after Talladega, Jackson was plagued by supply shortages and discipline problems arising from his men's short term enlistments. Cocke, with 2,500 East Tennessee Militia, took the field on October 12. His route of march was from Knoxville to Chattanooga and then along the Coosa toward Fort Strother. Because of jealousy between the East and West Tennessee militia, Cocke was in no hurry to join Jackson, particularly after he angered Jackson by mistakenly attacking a friendly village on November 17. When he finally reached Fort Strother on December 12, the East Tennessee men only had 10 days remaining on their enlistments. Jackson had no choice but to dismiss them. General Coffee, who had returned to Tennessee for remounts, wrote Jackson that the cavalry had deserted. By the end of 1813 Jackson was down to a single regiment whose enlistments were due to expire in mid January. Although, Governor Blount had ordered a new levee of 2,500 troops, Jackson would not be up to full strength until the end of February. When a draft of 900 raw recruits arrived unexpectedly on 14 January, Jackson was down to a cadre of 103 and Coffee, who had been "abandoned by his men". Since new men had sixty day enlistment contracts, Jackson decided to get the most out of his untried force. He departed Fort Strother on the seventeenth and marched toward the village of Emuckfaw to cooperate with the Georgia Militia. However, this was a risky decision. It was a long march through difficult terrain against a numerically superior force, the men were inexperienced, undisciplined and insubordinate, and a defeat would have prolonged the war. After two indecisive battles at Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek, Jackson returned to Fort Strother and did not resume the offensive until mid March. The arrival of the 39th United States Infantry on February 6 1814 provided Jackson a disciplined core for his force which ultimately grew to about 5,000 men. After Governor Blount ordered the second draft of Tennessee militia, Cocke, with a force of 2,000 six-month men, once again marched from Knoxville to Fort Strother. Cocke's men mutinied when they learned that Jackson's men only had three month enlistments. Cocke tried to pacify his men, but Jackson misunderstood the situation and ordered Cocke's arrest as an instigator. The East Tennessee militia reported to Fort Strother without further comment on their term of service. Cocke was later cleared. Jackson spent the next month building roads and training his force. In mid March, he moved against the Red Stick force concentrated on the Tallapoosa at Tohopeka (Horseshoe Bend). He first moved south along the Coosa about half the distance to the Creek position and established a new outpost at Fort Williams. Leaving another garrison, he then moved on Tohopeka with a force of about 3000 effectives augmented by 600 Cherokee and Lower Creek allies. The battle of Horseshoe Bend, which occurred on March 27, was a decisive victory for Jackson, effectively ending the Red Stick resistance.

Georgia militia

The state of Georgia had a militia of perhaps 30,000. The 6th Military District, consisting of both Carolinas as well as Georgia, had perhaps as many as 2,000 regulars. In principle, General Pinckney, the district commander, could have mounted an offensive that would have ended the Creek war in 1813. However, efforts in this sector were neither as prompt nor as effective as they could have been. In late November General John Floyd, with a force of 950 militia and 300–400 friendly Creek, crossed the Chattahoochee and moved toward the Holy Ground. On November 29 he attacked the village of Auttose and drove the Creek from a strong position. After the battle, General Floyd, who was severely wounded, withdrew to the Chattahoochee. Floyd's losses were 11 killed and 54 wounded. Floyd estimated that 200 Creek were killed. In mid January Floyd departed Fort Mitchell with a force of 1,300 militia and 400 friendly Creek, advancing toward the village of Tuckaubatchee to await a link-up Jackson. On January 29, 7 days after Emuckfaw, the Creek attacked his fortified camp on the Calibee Creek. Although the Georgian's repulsed the attack, Floyd and his militia considered this battle a defeat and retreated to Fort Mitchell, abandoning the line of fortified positions that they had created during their advance. Casualty figures vary for Floyd's force—17 to 22 killed, 132 to 147 wounded. Floyd estimated Red Stick casualties as 37 killed. This was Georgia's last offensive operation of the war.

Mississippi militia

In October General Thomas Flourney organized a force of about 1,000—consisting of the 3rd United States Infantry, militia, volunteers, and Choctaw Indians—at Ft. Stoddert. General Clairborne, ordered to lay waste Creek property near junction of Alabama and Tombigbee, advanced from Fort St. Stephen. He achieved some destruction but with no military engagement. Continuing to a point about 85 miles north of Fort Stoddert, Clairborne established Fort Clairborne. On December 23 he encountered a small force at the Holy Ground and burned 260 houses. William Weatherford was nearly captured during this engagement, but was able to escape. Casualties for the Mississipian's were 1 killed and 6 wounded. They killed 30 Creek warriors. Because of supply shortages, Clairborne withdrew to Fort St. Stephens

Results of the war

escape On August 9, 1814 Andrew Jackson forced the Creeks to sign the Treaty of Fort Jackson. Despite protest of the Creek chiefs who had fought alongside Jackson, the Creek Nation ceded 23 million acres (93,000 km²)—half of Alabama and part of southern Georgia—to the United States government. Even though the Creek War was largely a civil war between the Creeks, Andrew Jackson saw no difference between the Creeks that had fought with him and the Red Sticks that fought against him. 1.9 million acres of the 23 million Jackson forced the Creeks to cede was claimed by the Cherokee Nation who had allied with the United States. With the Red Stick menace subdued, Andrew Jackson was able to focus on the Gulf coast region. On his own initiative, he invaded Spanish Florida and drove a British force out of Pensacola. He next defeated the British at the Battle of New Orleans on January 8, 1815. In 1818 Jackson again invaded Florida, where some of the Red Stick leaders had fled, an event known as the First Seminole War. As a result of these victories, Jackson became a national figure and eventually rose to become the seventh President of the United States in 1829. As President, Andrew Jackson advocated the Indian Removal Act which relocated the Southeastern tribes across the Mississippi.

Notes

- Remini, p. 72
- Adams, p. 785
- Adams, p. 791

References

- "The Creek War 1813-1814" from the [http://www.nps.gov/hobe/home/creekwar.htm Horseshoe Bend National Military Park] website.
- Henry Adams, History of the United States of America During the Administrations of James Madison (Library Classics of the United State, Inc. 1986), ISBN 0940450356
- Andrew Burstein The Passions of Andrew Jackson (Alfred A. Kopf 2003), p. 106 ISBN 03754142828
- John Ehle, Trail of Tears The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation (Anchor Books Editions 1989), pp. 104 and 123, ISBN 0385239548
- John K. Mahon, The War of 1812, (University of Florida Press 1972) ISBN 0813003180
- Robert V. Remini, The Life of Andrew Jackson (Harper and Rowe, Publishers 1988), ISBN 0060159049

External links

- [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/national_parks/horseshoe_bend_war_1813-14.jpg A map of Creek War Battle Sites] from the PCL Map Collection at the University of Texas at Austin.
- [http://homepages.rootsweb.com/~cmamcrk4/crkwr1.html The Creek War]
- [http://www.galafilm.com/1812/e/people/creeks.html The War of 1812]
- [http://www.ratical.com/ratville/Tecumseh.html New Madrid Earthquake]
- Category:Muscogee people

Fort Mims massacre

The Fort Mims massacre occurred on 30 August, 1813 when a force of "Red Sticks" under Peter McQueen attacked a group of settlers and militia in Fort Mims.

Background

At the start of the Creek Civil War, settlers north of Mobile, particularly mixed-blood Creeks from the lower towns, began to take refuge with the American settlers in the stockades of Fort Mims. About 550 settlers, including 175 armed militia, were gathered at Fort Mims, which was located about 35 to 45 miles above Mobile, on the eastern side of the Alabama River. Upon learning that Peter McQueen's party of Red Sticks (so-called for the red, painted sticks they carried into battle) was in Pensacola obtaining arms from the Spanish, Major Daniel Beasley and Captain Dixon Bailey led a disorganized force to intercept the Red Sticks. The resulting confrontation is known as the "Battle of Burnt Corn". Immediately after Burnt Corn, Peter McQueen gathered a party of about 800 to a 1000 warriors to strike at the mixed-blood Creeks at Fort Mims. One of McQueen's strongest allies, William Weatherford, attempted to talk the Red Sticks out of attacking, because he feared for the lives of his family members who had taken refuge in the fort. Weatherford eventually agreed to take part in the attack, with the hopes of preventing a slaughter, and to seek vengeance upon his personal enemy, Captain Dixon Bailey.

The Battle

Although Beasley, the commander, maintained that he could "maintain the post against any number of Indians," the stockade was poorly-defended and, at the time of the attack, one of the two gates was partially blocked open by drifting sand. On the 29th of August, 1813, two Negro slaves who were tending cattle outside the stockade, reported that "painted warriors" were in the vicinity. However, mounted scouts from the fort found no signs of the war party, and Beasley had the second slave flogged for raising a "false alarm". The attack occurred the next day during the mid-day meal, when no American scouts were out. The "Red Sticks" rushed the fort and tomahawked Beasley, who was trying to close the blocked gate. They then seized the loopholes and the outer enclosure. The settlers under Dixon Bailey held the inner enclosure, and fought on for a time. However, the Red Sticks finally set fire to a house in the center, which spread to the rest of the stockade. The warriors then forced their way into the inner enclosure and, despite attempts by William Weatherford, massacred most of the mixed-blood Creeks and white settlers. As the fever-pitched emotions of battle evaporated, 500 people were found dead, and 250 scalps had been taken. Most of the Negros were "spared", to become slaves of the Red Sticks. About 15 persons escaped, including Bailey, who was mortally wounded.

Results

The Red Sticks' victory at Fort Mims spread panic through the Southeastern United States frontier. The massacre marked the transition from a civil war within the Creek tribe (Moscoge), to a war between the United States and the Red Stick warriors of the Upper Creek. Since Federal troops were occupied with the Nothern front of the War of 1812, Tennessee, Georgia, and the Mississippi Territory mobilized their militias to move against the Upper Creek towns that had supported the Red Sticks' cause. After several battles the Battle of Horseshoe Bend ended the Creek War.

References

- Henry Adams "History of the United States of America During the Administrations of James Madison" (Library Classics of the United State, Inc. 1986), pp. 780-781 ISBN 0940450356
- John K. Mahon "The War of 1812" (University of Florida Press 1972) pp. 234-235 ISBN 0813003180
- Robert Leckie "The Wars of America" (Harper and Rowe 1968), p. 275 ISBN 0060125713
- John Ehle, Trail of Tears The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation (Anchor Books Editions 1989), p. 105 ISBN 0385239548
- Andrew Burstein The Passions of Andrew Jackson (Alfred A. Kopf 2003), p. 99 ISBN 03754142828

External links

- [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/national_parks/horseshoe_bend_war_1813-14.jpg A map of Creek War Battle Sites] from the PCL Map Collection at the Universtity of Texas at Austin.
- [http://homepages.rootsweb.com/~cmamcrk4/crkwr3b.html#anchor649021 A Drawing of Fort Mims]
- For an expanded narrative, select The Story at [http://www.canerossi.us/ftmims/ A Short History of the Ft. Mims Massacre of 1813 during the Creek Indian War]
- [http://homepages.rootsweb.com/~cmamcrk4/crkwr3.html#anchor438733 Site about the Creek War including accounts, letters, etc.] Category:Battles of the Creek War Category:1813

Menawa

.]] Menawa, also known as Great Warrior, was a military leader of the Creek (Muscogee) people. Like many of the Creek leaders of his era, he was of mixed Scottish and American Indian ancestry. He was born about 1765 at the village of Oakfuskee located on or near the Tallapoosa River. (The site is now covered by the lower part of Lake Martin). During the Creek War he was one of the principle leaders of the "Red Sticks" or Upper Creeks, who went to war against the United States during the War of 1812. Menewa was second in command at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend at the end of the Creek War. He was wounded seven time during the battle, but he escaped and survived his wounds. After the war, Menawa contined to oppose the encroachment on Creek lands. He led the party that assasinated William McIntosh, who had signed Treaty of Indian Springs. Menawa was a member of the Creek National Council that went to Washington in 1826 to oppose this treaty. The Creek leaders signed the Treaty of Washington (1826), which nullified the Treaty of Indian Springs. In this new treaty, the Creek ceeded land to Georgia—in compensation they received an immediate payment of $217,660 and a perpetual annuity of $20,000. Menewa died during the general removal of the Creek. His burial place is unknown.

External links

- [http://www.rootsweb.com/~alshelby/Menawa.html Menawa, A Chief of the Upper Creeks]
- [http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/cre0264.htm#mn1 Treaty With The Creeks, 1826. Jan. 24, 1826] Menawah Menawah

Florida

Florida is a Southern state in the United States, situated upon a large peninsula between the Gulf of Mexico, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Straits of Florida. "Florida" is a Spanish adjective which means "flowery." The peninsula was discovered and settled by Juan Ponce de León on Easter Sunday, March 27, 1513, which is known as Pascua Florida in Spanish. Its U.S. Postal abbreviation is FL while its traditional abbreviation is Fla.

History

1513 Archaeological finds indicate that Florida had been inhabited for many thousands of years prior to any European settlements. Of the many indigenous people, the largest tribes were the Calusa, Tequesta, Timucuan, and the Tocobago tribes.

Red Sticks

References

Creek people

Early history

Revolutionary Era

Red Stick War

Removal to the West

The Muscogee Today

Famous Creek

See also

Notes

External links

Shaman

Etymology

History

Asia

Americas

Aspects of the practice

Initiation and learning

Shamanic illness

Practice and method

Shamanic technology

Gender and sexuality

Shamanism and New Age

See also

Further reading

External links

Hunting

History

Old roots

Modern Hunting for Sport

Specific hunting traditions

Shikar (India)

Safari

United Kingdom

Hunting in the United States

Depiction of hunt in Popular Culture

See also

External links

Tecumseh

Early years

"Tecumseh's War"

War of 1812

Miscellaneous

Tributes

Namings

Tecumseh in fiction

Quotations

See also

References

Notes

External links

Creek War

Background

Opposing forces

The War

Tennesee militia

Georgia militia

Mississippi militia

Results of the war

See also

Notes

References

External links

Fort Mims massacre

Background

The Battle

Results

References

External links

Menawa

External links

Florida

History