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Turkish War Of Independence

Turkish War of Independence

.]] The Turkish War of Independence (Turkish: Kurtuluş Savaşı) is a part of the History of Turkey that spans from the defeat of the Ottoman Empire by the Allies in World War I to the declaration of the Republic of Turkey on October 29, 1923.

The Precursors

The war followed World War I, the Armenian Genocide and the Treaty of Sevres. It culminated with the establishment of the modern Turkish Republic, which was cleansed of minorities through the Greco-Turk population exchange of 1922, and the dissolution of the 500 year old Ottoman Empire. It also left the Kurdish question unresolved, as the Kurds were promised an independent state in the Treaty of Sevres, which was not ratified, and the majority of Kurds ended up under Turkish rule. Many countries supported the Turkish uprising, especially the newly communist Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. The uprising was led by Mustafa Kemal, who later took the name Ataturk. However on the political front it was totally different. There were conflicting sides which had conflicting visions. Only one source was binding all these people together, the Entente powers which wanted to eliminate them from the places that they saw as their homeland. Resistance to the Ottoman puppet government started soon after Allied troops began occupying parts of Turkey. The Entente's first action was to control the ammunition and its distribution. In reaction of this, many Ottoman officials organized secret Outpost Societies (Karakol Cemiyeti) shortly after and used their positions to thwart the Allied demands, both passive and active resistance. Small boats from the capital sent out into the Aegean and the Black Sea. The second demand was disbanding the small units either to a bigger more controllable or totally sending them home. The first resistance movements in Thrace and Istanbul were organized within the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Before the leading officers of the Ottoman Army such as Mustafa Kemal, Kãzim Karabekir, and others returned to Istanbul from their last posts. In the face of their situation, the Sultan and government bribed them with important positions in the areas remaining under so called direct Ottoman authority. Places that were mainly occupied by the armies of Allies. Even today, the reason of these assignments was discussed if they were to support the national movement or to keep what little is left to them. The most prominent idea given against for sultan’s decision was by assigning these officers out of Constantinople (which was renamed Istanbul in 1930) to already occupied places, he tried to minimize the effectiveness of these soldiers. The look from the Constantinople was without the organized army, allies can not be defeated. Many Constantinopolican officials also did all they could to conceal the details of the movements that spread through the country side from the occupation authorities.

Initial Organization (May 1919-March 1920)

Atatürk needed national support. His notoriety from his position, and his status as a hero after the battle of Gallipoli, gave him some credentials. It was not enough to mobilize anything. Besides his task was to disarm the army, he had to secure some relations to gain more movement. He met with Rauf Orbay, Ali Fuat Cebesoy, and Refet Bele on June 21 1919. Before Amasya Agrement, Atatürk met with a Bolshevik delegation headed by Colonel Semion M. Budienny. Bolsheviks wanted to annex the Armenian Republic and other parts of the Caucasus which were formally part of Czarist Russia. Turkey could also be a buffer, especially if it turns into communistic ideology. Atatürk official response was "Such questions had to be posponed until Turkish independance was achieved." Having this support was important for the national movement.

Amasya Agreement

Amasya Agreement is important in many respects. It is the first call for the national movement against the occupation. It talks about national independence, based on provinces, not race. Even in this declaration we see the roots of what constitutes the "Turk" as a political term. There is no distinction or reference to race or religion. The message read as follows:
- The unity of the fatherland and national independence are in danger.
- The Istanbul government is unable to carry out its responsibilities.
- It is only through the nation's effort and determination that national independence will be won.
- It is necessary to establish a national committee, free from all external influences and control, that will review the national situation and make known to the world the peoples desires for justice.
- It has been decided to hold immediately a National Congress in Savas, the most secure place in Anatolia.
- Three representatives from each province should be sent immediately to the Sivas Congress.
- To be prepared for every eventuality, this subject should be kept a national secret. This agreement was signed by Atatürk, Rauf Orbay, Ali Fuat Cebesoy, Refet Bele and later Kazim Karabekir added his signature.

Erzurum Congress

Balıkesir Congress

Alaşehir Congress

Sivas Congress

Kazim Karabekir

Amasya Protocole

Jurisdictional Conflict (March 1920 - March 1922)

The new government in Constantinople hoping to dissolute the national movement passed a fatwa from Şeyhülislam (legal opinion). The fatwa stated that true believer should not go along with the nationalist (rebels) movement. Along with this religious decree, government prosecuted Mustafa Kemal and prominent nationalist to death in absentia. At the same time, müfti of Ankara in defense of national movement gave a counter acting fatwa declaring that Constantinople is under control of Entente and the Ferit Paşa government. In this text, nationalist movement's goal was stated as freeing the Sultan and Caliphate from the enemies. Kazim Karabekir The British in Constantinople who were looking skeptical to all these movements decided to use irregular power to counter act the nationalist movement, which was mainly an irregular movement at that time. These irregular national forces were distributed around the Turkey, so İstanbul dispatched many small counter forces. Ahmet Anzavur and his forces, or will be his forces with the help of British army, was the biggest opposing force of all. Besides the irregulars, under the name of Kuva-yi İnzibatiye (Disciplinary forces) another army was collected. It was about 2000 strong force. It was initially deployed in the Nicea.

Grand National Assembly

Ahmet Anzavur

Breaking the links

Organizing an Army

Stage for Peace (March 1922- April 1923)

The first communication between nationals and the Entente build when the first time Entente began to see the need to make some kind of arrangement with the Turkish nationalists. To salvage the Sevres Treaty between February 21 and March 12 1921 conference was staged at London. Entente forced the nationalists to agree with the Istanbul government. Bekir Sami, from Ankara, insisted that the delegate from Istanbul can not enter the negotiations. Also he refused to make Sêvres the basis for the discussions. Sêvres was the Ottoman agreement with the Allies, not with the Ankara. Franklin—Bouillon, the French foreign minister, saw the need to develop a new perspective and he developed the policies in recognizing the Ankara government, in Allied side. Another London meeting in March 1922 setaged. Allies, without considering the extent of Ankara's successes, hoped to impose modified Serves as a peace settlement on Ankara. The Entente foreign ministers proposed Ankara to establish Armenian state in eastern Anatolia, removing Turkish troops from the Straits area, Turkish abandonment to the Greeks of Smyrna and eastern Thrace, including Adrianople. On the positive side they were raising the Sèvres limits on the Turkish army to 85,000 men, eliminating the European financial controls over the Turkish government but retaining the Capitulations and Public Debt Commission, etc. These proposals were opposite of the National Pact that it was easy for Ankara Assembly to rejection them.

The Armistice of Mudanya

The Marmara sea resort town of Mudanya host the conference to arrange the armistice on October 3, 1922. Ismet Inonü, commander of the western armies was in front of Allies. The scene was unlike Mondros as the British and the Greeks were on the defense. Greeks were represented by the Allies. The British still expected Ankara, Grand National Assembly, to make concessions. From the first speech, Brits were startled as Ankara demanded fulfillment of the National Pact. During the conference the British troops in Constantinople were preparing for a Kemalist attack. There was never any fighting in Thrace, as Greek units withdrew before the Turks crossed the straits, remaining in Asia Minor. The Greeks were willing to give up Eastern Thrace as it's population was mostly Turks, Bulgarians and Muslim Slavs, and it's only use served as a corridor to Constantinople, and it was now clear that the city would remain in Turkish hands. The only concession that Ismet made to the British was an agreement that his troops would not advance any farther toward the Dardanelles, which gave a safe haven for the British troops as long as the conference continued. The conference dragged on far beyond the original expectations. In the end it was the British who had to yield, with the Ankara's advances. The Armistice of Mudanya was signed on October 11. By its terms the Greek army would move west of the Maritsa, clearing the Thrace to the Allies. This was a method that started an end to hostilities. The famous American author Ernest Hemingway was in Thrace at the time, and he covered the retreat of the time. He has several short stories written about Thrace and Smyrna, which appear in his book In Our Time. The agreement came into force starting October 15. Allied forces would stay in Thrace for a month to assure law and order. In return Ankara would recognize continued British occupation of the Straits zones until the final treaty was signed. This arrangement included also Constantinople, which thus would have to wait a little while longer to be seized by Turkish forces. Refet Bele was assigned to recovery of Thrace from Allies. He was the first representative to reach the old capital. The British did not allow the hundred gendarmes who came with him. That resistance lasted till the next day.

Conferance and Treaty of Lusanne

The Republic

Theatres of the War

East-(Armenian & Georgia)

The border between Armenia and Turkey was defined in the Treaty of Sevres, but the Turks refused to accept this border due to its existence in the Treaty of Sevres and attacked the Armenian Republic. There was a newly proclaimed Armenian Republic, Georgia, and Bolsheviks against the nationalists. One of the most important fights had been in this border. Even though there is a pressing Greek danger on the west as the Greeks were advancing very rapidly into Asia Minor, the very early onset of national army was the proof of this. The Turks sought to link up with the Azeris and eliminate the tiny Armenian state. There was also a movement of Armenians from southeast with the French support, as the French created an Armenian army to support their claims to Cilicia. This Armenian legion committed many atrocities in reprisal as many of these legionairres were victims of the Armenian Genocide. The Armenian government did little support this legion, as to link these sources Armenian Republic needed to move more deep and south, like Van, but first Erzurum. The Armenian diasporas was negotiating with Entente powers and the Armenian movements were being used as an argument to draw the boarder between Ottoman Empire and Armenian Republic.Although the Armenians were more concerned with the pressing threat of Azerbaijan, which wanted to annex Nagorno-Karabakh at the expense of Armenia, they were not content with what the Treaty of Sevres gave them either, and had further claims against Turkey. In actuality, the Armenians always wanted to occupy all of the land that the Treaty of Sevres gave them. A Turkish invasion of Armenia began in May 1920. The stage of the east campaign is developed through two reports (30 May to 4 June 1920) outlining the situation from Kâzım Karabekir Paşa. He was detailing the activities of the Armenian Republic's activities and advising how to shape the sources at the eastern borders, especially Erzurum. Before the stage was set by Kâzım Karabekir Paşa on the east border, Russian government send a message to settle not only East Armenian but also Iranian border through diplomacy under Russian control. The Soviet support was absolutely vital for the Turkish nationalist movement, as Turkey was underdeveloped and had no domestic armaments industry. Bakir Sami Bey was assigned for the talks. Bolsheviks demanded Van and Bitlis to Armenia. This was unacceptable to the Turkish nationalists. Nationalists were also faced another dilemma, their hesitation to move forces to prevent the Armenian raids was causing a growing unsettlement among the Turks, but they have to balance the Greek threat and needed the diplomatic connections. Before more diplomatic exchanges can be done, to show a sign of power on the discussion table, Armenia moved its forces to Oltu. This was fallowed with 25 July Artvin was occupied by Georgian forces. The response to these moves was set by Kâzım Karabekir Paşa through moving the Turkish forces towards the eastern border, on 28 Septamber 1920. The fighting was halted for a month after Sardarabad,with a decisive Armenian Victory The nationalist moved more support and gave another chance to talks. When the second movement began on 27 December, it was finally stopped by Armenians through Alexandropol (Gümrü) agreement. This agreement has to be renewed shortly after. The nationalist and socialist Dashnakzoutian government of Armenia was toppled by the Bolsheviks. Armenia Republic was not eliminated from the map by the Turkish nationalist which could no longer threaten the country after they were defeated at Sardarabad, but Bolseviks managed to crush the tiny Armenian state. The arms left by the defeated Armenian forces were sent to the west to develop the resistance to the Greeks. It should be noted that, like some Armenian historians claim Turkish movement against the Armenian forces was not coordinated with Bolsheviks. Bolsheviks conquered Azerbaijan while the Armenians were fighting with Turks. It is only after the peace agreement was reached that they moved into Yerevan. Soon after the bolsheviks and nationalists signed another agreement 16 March 1921. Nationalists agreed to cede Nachicevan and Batum. In response they received support and gold. For the promised resources nationalist have to wait until the Skarya battle. Bolsheviks was expecting that nationalist could not last long.

West (Greek-English)

The 1920 Treaty of Sèvres, which ended the First World War in Asia Minor and divided the Ottoman Empire, assigned all these territories to Greece. Greek troops had already occupied Smyrna and the surroundings in May 1919 under cover of French, British and American ships. The reason for these landings were prior Italian landing on the Southern coast of Turkey, including in the city of Antalya. The Allies worried about further Italian expansion and saw Greek landings as a way to avoid this. It was decided that Greece would occupy a zone around Smyrna and Ayvali in Western Asia Minor, which had a majority Greek population, along with a Turkish, Armenian and Circassian minority. The Armenians obviously preferred Greek rule due to the 1915 Armenian genocide perpetrated by the Turks. Circassians, and Hellenophone Cretan Muslims as well as many "Turks" were generally split over Greek rule. Circassians and many so-called Turks who had recently emigrated from Crete had not assimilated, and many of them took up arms in support of the Greek occupation of Smyrna. The Turkish population, as well as many Cretan Muslims and Circassians, generally preferred to be under Turkish rule, although they were in the minority. To resolve these problems it was decided that after 5 years there would be a democratic plebiscite, to see whether the Smyrna-zone would join Greece or Turkey. The Turkish nationalist and Ataturk refused to hear any of this, and resolved to expel the Greeks from Asia by force. Armenian genocide In the summer of 1920, the Greek army, after Ataturk refused to accept the Treaty of Sevres, launched attacks and extended its zone of occupation over all Western and Nort Western Asia Minor. The Greece already occupied Eastern Thrace. They wanted to occupy the Constantinople, the historical capital of the Greek Byzantine Empire, so that they can have linked the both sides, but Entente powers did not gave permission. The war arose because the western Allies, particularly British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, had promised Greece territorial gains at the expense of the Ottoman Empire if Greece entered the war on the Allied side. These included Eastern Thrace, the islands of Imbros and Tenedos, and parts of Western Anatolia around the city of Smyrna (current day İzmir, which is a Turkish derivation of Smyrna), all of which had substantial if not majority Greek populations. In October 1920, with the encouragement of Lloyd George who intended to increase the pressure on the Turkish and Ottoman governments to sign the Treaty of Sevrès, the Greek army advanced east into Anatolia with the intention of defeating the Kemalist forces before they were ready to attack the Greek perimeter at Smyrna. This advancement was begun under the Liberal government of Eleftherios Venizelos, but soon after the offensive began Venizelos fell from power and was replaced by Dimitrios Gounaris, who appointed inexperienced monarchist officers to senior commands. King Constantine took personal command of the army at Smyrna. After a Greek defeat on January 11, 1921, Allied states proposed to amend the Treaty of Sevrès at a conference in London where both Turkish and Ottoman governments were represented. Although some agreements were reached with Italy, France and Britain, the decisions were defied by the Greeks who initiated another attack on March 27 (Battle of Inonu II), to be resisted and finally defeated by the Kemalist troops on March 30. The unpredictable Turkish victory caused Secretary of War Winston Churchill to withdraw British support to the Greeks. The Greek defeat can be largely attributed to a lack of British support as King Constantine was reviled by the British for his pro-German policies during WWI, as well as massive Soviet support to the Turks. In June 1921 the strengthened Greek army advanced to the River Sakarya, less than 100 km (62 miles) west of Ankara. Meanwhile, the Turkish government at Ankara appointed Mustafa Kemal as the commander in chief. In August, Kemal counter-attacked, routing the Greeks and cutting off their supply lines at the Battle of the Sakarya (August 23 – September 13, 1921). The Greeks retreated in good order and still hoped to defend their base at Smyrna. They appealed to the Allies for help, but early in 1922 Britain, France and Italy decided that the Treaty of Sèvres could not be enforced and should be revised. Parallel to their decision, with successive treaties, Italian and French troops evacuated their positions. In March 1922 the Allies proposed a ceasefire, but Kemal answered there could be no settlement while the Greeks remained in Anatolia. In August, after preparations on both sides, the Turks launched a new offensive on August 26, defeating the Greeks at the Battle of Dumlupinar near Afyon (August 30, 1922, celebrated as the Victory Day and a national holiday in Turkey). Shortly after their victory, the Turks captured Izmir (September 9). The city was burned to the ground by the Turks. The US consul, Geroge Horton, as well as many others witnessed these events and was deeply moved by the Turkish atrocities in Smyrna. Geroge Horton With the borders secured with treaties and agreements at east and south, Kemal was now in a commanding position. The Turks were then able to insist that unconditionally, the Greeks evacuate east Thrace, Imbros and Tenedos as well as Asia Minor, and the Maritza River to be set as the border at Thrace at its pre-1914 position. The majority of the ethnic Greek population of Asia Minor had already fled or been expelled to Greece. Greeks call this the "Asia Minor Disaster" or more commonly the meghali katastrophia (the root of the English word catastrophe) which means "Great Catastrophe." France, Italy and Britain called Mustafa Kemal to Venice for cease-fire negotiations. In return, Mustafa Kemal demanded negotiations be started at Moudania (Mudanya). Negotiations at Mudanya began on October 3, and it was concluded with the Mudanya Armistice.

South

El cezire

Pontus

Timeline

- 1916: The Sykes-Picot Agreement between the United Kingdom and France is signed, dividing the Ottoman Empire between several states, both independent (e.g. Armenia and Kurdistan) and subject to such European nations as the UK, Italy, France, Imperial Russia and
- Greece. According to this treaty, a small territory around Ankara was all that was to be left for the Turks. This treaty is not recognized by the Ottoman state.
- 1919: Müdafaa-i Hukuk Cemiyeti (Association for Defense of Rights of Anatolia and Rumelia) is founded in Ankara by Mustafa Kemal, consisting of Young Turks and other nationalists.
- April 23, 1920: The first meeting of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. The monarchy and government of Sultan Mehmed VI is denounced and a temporary constitution is affirmed.
- August 10, 1920: The Treaty of Sèvres is signed between the Entente and the Sultan. It is not recognized by Mustafa Kemal.
- January 20, 1921: The first Turkish Constitution is approved by the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, establishing the state of Turkey.
- November 1, 1922: The sultanate is abolished.
- November 17: Mehmed VI goes into exile.
- July 24, 1923: The Treaty of Lausanne is signed, giving Turkey its current borders, except the province of Hatay.
- October 29: Mustafa Kemal declares the Republic of Turkey and becomes the president of it.

History of Turkey

This article is primarily about the history of the Republic of Turkey. For other periods in history, see the links to main articles about those subjects under the corresponding history. One of the new states from the Ottoman Empire was Republic of Turkey. This new state delivered the 'coup de grâce' to the Ottoman state, almost mercifully, in 1922, with the overthrow of Sultan Mehmet VI Vahdettin by the new Republican assembly of Turkey.

War of Independence

Turkey Short Summary: One of the new states was Republic of Turkey. Turkish nationalists established modern Turkey as an outcome of the Turkish War of Independence, mostly on what was to become Turkish soil, as of the Treaty of Lausanne. Turkish War of Independence defeated Greece in western Turkey (see Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922)), East Ermanian state on the west (2 November 1920 Gümrü Treaty).The Treaty of Lausanne, signed on July 24, 1923, and negotiated by Ismet Pasha (Inönü) on behalf of the Ankara government, established most of the modern boundaries of the country (except the province of Hatay which was given to Turkey by France in 1939).

Single Party Period

Short Summary: The history of modern Turkey begins with the foundation of the republic on October 29, 1923 (the Republic was declared on January 20, 1921), with Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) as its first president. The government was formed from the Ankara-based revolutionary group, led by Atatürk. A new constitution was approved on April 20, 1924. For the next 10 years, there was a steady process of secular westernization, guided by Mustafa Kemal. Unification of education, and disband of religious titles, Latin alphabet replaces Arabic script, the dress law (the wearing of a fez, a traditional Muslim hat, is outlawed), law of family names, etc. The educational materials were developed using words from Central Asia (including countries north of Turkey) are imported and their use is encouraged, with spotty success. The use of Persian and Arabic words is discouraged. The passage to multi party period, was tried with Liberal Republican Party by Fethi Okyar. However, the liberal party was dissolved on November 17, 1930 and no further attempt for a multi-party democracy was made until 1945. Turkey was admitted to the League of Nations in July 1932. Atatürk's successor after his death on November 10, 1938 was Ismet Inönü. During World War II, Turkey signed a peace treaty with Germany and officially remained neutral until near the end of war. In 1945 Turkey joined the UN, and in February 1945 it declared war on Germany and Japan. This was largely symbolic. Turkey joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1952.

Multi-Party Period

Short Neutral Summary: The real multi-party period begins with the election of the Democratic Party. The Menderes government was very popular at first, relaxing the restrictions on Islam and presiding over a booming economy. In the later half of the decade, however, the economy began to fail and the government introduced censorship laws limiting dissent. The government became plagued by high inflation and a massive debt. On May 27,1960 General Cemal Gürsel led a military coup d'état removing President Celal Bayar and Prime Minister Adnan Menderes, the second of whom was executed. The system returned to civilian control in October of 1961. The political system that emerged in the wake of the 1960 coup was a fractured one, producing a series of unstable government coalitions in parliament alternating between the True Path Party of Suleyman Demirel on the right and the Republican People's Party of Ismet Inonu and Bulent Ecevit on the left. A new coup was staged in 1971 and 1970s was under Prime Minister Ecevit in coalition with the religious National Salvation Party, Turkey carried out an operation in Cyprus (Turkish Invasion of Cyprus). The fractured political scene and poor economy led to mounting violence between ultranationalists and communists in the streets of Turkey's cities. A paralyzed parliament and increasing death-toll prompted a coup in 1980. Within two years, the military had returned the government to civilian hands. Political system came one-party governance under Turgut Ozal's Motherland Party, which combined a globally-oriented economic program with conservative social values. Under Ozal, the economy boomed, converting towns like Gazi Antep from small provincial capitals into mid-sized economic boomtowns. with the turn of 90s, Political instability followed, the 1995 elections brought a short-lived coalition between Yilmaz's Motherland Party and The True Path Party, now with Tansu Ciller at the helm. In 1998, the military, citing his government's support for religious policies deemed dangerous to Turkey's secular nature, sent a memorandum to Erbakan government requesting that he resign, which he did. This was named postmodern coup. Shortly thereafter, the RP was banned and re-born under the name Virtue Party (FP). A new government was formed by ANAP and Ecevit's Democratic Left Party (DSP) supported from the outside by the center-left Republican People's Party (CHP), led by Deniz Baykal. The DSP won big in the 1999 elections. Second place went to the Nationalist Action Party (MHP). These two parties, alongside Yilmaz's ANAP formed a government. The government was somewhat effective, if not harmonious, bringing about much-needed economic reform, instituting human rights legislation, and bringing Turkey ever closer to the European Union. A series of economic shocks led to new elections in 2002, bringing into power the religiously conservative Justice and Development Party of former mayor of Istanbul, Recep Tayyip Erdogan. Category: History of Turkey

Allies

When spelt with a capital A, Allies usually denotes the countries that fought together against the Central Powers in World War I and against the Axis Powers in World War II. :For more information, see the related articles: Allies of World War I and Allies of World War II.

Other uses

In general, allies are people or groups that have joined an alliance and are working together to achieve some common purpose. In general English usage, those who share a common goal and whose work toward that goal is complementary may be viewed as allies for various purposes even when no explicit agreement has been worked out between them. Similarly, when the term is used in the context of war or armed struggle, a formal military alliance is not required for being perceived as an ally — co-belligerence, to fight alongside someone, is enough. According to this general usage, allies become allies not when concluding an alliance treaty but when struck by war. In the context of diversity politics, an ally has been defined as "a person of one social identity group who stands up in support of members of another group; typically a member of dominant group standing beside member(s) of a group being discriminated against or treated unjustly; e.g., a male arguing for equal pay for women." (This definition is adapted from one developed by the [http://www.asu.edu/provost/intergroup Arizona State University Intergroup Relations Center]). Yet another meaning of allies is found in the books of Carlos Castaneda, describing a race of non-human but human-appearing beings which inhabit the earth, and only infrequently interfere with human endeavors. Similar beings exist in various other fictional (and possible non-fiction) works including the book The Holy by author Daniel Quinn, in which one character refers to these beings as "you-whos". These beings may also be related or identical to descriptions of demons or nephilim. The term is generally used in the generic sense of "all who opposed the enemy". In addition, it is usually used in a strict dichotomy of them vs. us, reflecting wartime propaganda, with no account taken of nuances of countries that were occupied as neutrals, changed sides or participated in concurrent wars. In previous major European wars, e.g., those against the declarers of war Louis XIV of France, Louis XV of France, and Napoleon, the term coalition was used because these were not considered total wars, and the sovereign nations could enter and leave belligerency with diplomatic agreements with the enemy. Category:Diplomacy ko:연합국 ja:連合国

October 29

October 29 is the 302nd day of the year (303rd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 63 days remaining.

Events

- 437 - Valentinian III, Western Roman Emperor, marries Licinia Eudoxia, daughter of his cousin Theodosius II, Eastern Roman Emperor in Constantinople. This unifies the two branches of the House of Theodosius
- 969 - Byzantine troops occupy Antioch Syria
- 1061 - Emperor disposes of Bishop Cadalus & Pope Honorius II
- 1268 - Conradin, the last legitimate male heir of the Hohenstaufen dynasty of Kings of Germany and Holy Roman Emperors, is executed along with his companion Frederick I, Margrave of Baden by Charles I of Sicily, a political rival and ally to the hostile Catholic church.
- 1422 - Charles VII of France becomes king in succession to his father Charles VI of France
- 1467 - Battle of Brusthem: Charles the Bold defeats Liege
- 1618 - English adventurer, writer, and courtier Sir Walter Raleigh is beheaded for allegedly conspiring against James I of England.
- 1658 - Action of 29 October 1658 (Naval battle)
- 1675 - Leibniz makes the first use of the long s, ∫, for integral.
- 1787 - Mozart's opera Don Giovanni receives its first performance in Prague.
- 1792 - Mt. Hood (Oregon) is named after the British naval officer Alexander Arthur Hood by Lt. William E. Broughton who spotted the mountain near the mouth of the Willamette River.
- 1863 - Sixteen countries meeting in Geneva agree to form the International Red Cross.
- 1863 - American Civil War: Battle of Wauhatchie - Forces under Union General Ulysses S. Grant ward-off a Confederate attack led by General James Longstreet. Union forces thus open a supply line into Chattanooga, Tennessee.
- 1881 - The Judge (US magazine) first published.
- 1886 - The ticker-tape parade is invented in New York City when office workers spontaneously throw ticker tape into the streets as the Statue of Liberty is dedicated.
- 1901 - In Amherst, Massachusetts nurse Jane Toppan is arrested for murdering the Davis family of Boston with an overdose of morphine.
- 1901 - Capital punishment: Leon Czolgosz, the assassin of US President William McKinley, is executed by electrocution.
- 1921 - The Link River Dam, a part of the Klamath Reclamation Project, is completed.
- 1923 - Turkey becomes a republic following the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire.
- 1929 - The New York Stock Exchange crashes, ending the Great Bull Market of the 1920s and beginning the Great Depression.
- 1942 - Holocaust: In the United Kingdom, leading clergymen and political figures hold a public meeting to register outrage over Nazi Germany's persecution of Jews.
- 1944 - Breda in the Netherlands is liberated by 1st Polish Armoured Division
- 1945 - Getulio Vargas, president of Brazil, resigns.
- 1948 - Safsaf massacre
- 1955 - The Soviet battleship Novorossiisk strikes a World War II mine in the harbor at Sevastopol.
- 1956 - Suez Crisis begins: Israel invades the Sinai Peninsula and push Egyptian forces back toward the Suez Canal.
- 1956 - Tangier Protocol signed: The international city Tangier is reintegrated into Morocco.
- 1957 - Israel's prime minister David Ben Gurion and five of his ministers are injured as a hand grenade is tossed into Israel's parliament, the Knesset.
- 1960 - In Louisville, Kentucky, Cassius Clay (who later takes the name Muhammad Ali) wins his first professional fight.
- 1964 - A collection of irreplaceable gems, including the 565 carat (113 g) Star of India, is stolen from the American Museum of Natural History in New York City.
- 1969 - The first computer-to-computer link is established on ARPANET.
- 1971 - Vietnam War: Vietnamization - The total number of American troops still in Vietnam drops to a record low of 196,700 (the lowest level since January 1966).
- 1980 - Demonstration flight of a secretly modified C-130 for an Iran hostage crisis rescue attempt ends in crash landing at Eglin Air Force Base's Duke Field, Florida leading to cancellation of Operation Credible Sport.
- 1985 - Major General Samuel K. Doe is announced the winner of the first multiparty election in Liberia.
- 1988 - In Japan, the Sega Megadrive is released for the first time.
- 1989 - After years of delays, the 63rd Street Tunnel opens for service, the first expansion of the New York City subway system since 1967.
- 1991 - The American Galileo spacecraft makes its closest approach to 951 Gaspra, becoming the first probe to visit an asteroid.
- 1992 - The Food and Drug Administration approves Depo Provera for use as a contraceptive in the United States.
- 1994 - Francisco Martin Duran fires over two dozen shots at the White House (Duran was later convicted of trying to kill US President Bill Clinton).
- 1998 - Apartheid: In South Africa, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission presents its report, which condemns both sides for committing atrocities.
- 1998 - Space Shuttle Discovery blasts-off with 77-year old John Glenn on board, making him the oldest person to go into space. He became the first American to orbit Earth on February 20, 1962.
- 1998 - While en route from Adana to Ankara, a Turkish Airlines flight with a crew of 6 and 33 passengers is hijacked by a Kurdish militant who orders the pilot to fly to Switzerland. The plane instead lands in Ankara after the pilot tricked the hijacker into thinking that he was landing in the Bulgarian capital of Sofia to refuel.
- 1998 - In Freehold Borough, New Jersey, Melissa Drexler pleads guilty to aggravated manslaughter for killing her baby moments after delivering him in the bathroom at her senior prom, and is sentenced to 15 years imprisonment.
- 1998 - Hurricane Mitch made landfall in Honduras.
- 2004 - The Arabic news network Al Jazeera broadcasts an excerpt from a video of Osama bin Laden in which the terrorist leader first admits direct responsibility for the September 11, 2001 attacks and references the 2004 U.S. presidential election.
- 2004 - In Rome, European heads of state sign the Treaty and Final Act establishing the first European Constitution.
- 2005 - 29 October 2005 Delhi bombings kill more than 60.
- 2005 - Ghana International Airlines launched with inaugural flight from Accra to London.

Births

- 1017 - Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1056)
- 1656 (O.S.) - Edmond Halley, English astronomer

1923

1923 (MCMXXIII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will take you to calendar).

Events

January-June

- January 1 - Grouping of all UK railway companies into four larger companies
- January 10 - Lithuania seizes and annexes Memel
- January 11 - Troops from France and Belgium occupy the Ruhr area to force Germany to pay its reparation payments
- February 16 - Howard Carter unseals the burial chamber of Pharaoh Tutankhamun
- February 22 - Barcelona (Catalonia): Albert Einstein visits the city, invited by the scientist Esteban Terradas i Illa, as part of the monografics course of High Studies and Exchange organized by the Mancomunitat de Catalunya and conducted by Rafael de Campalans.
- March - Antigone by Jean Cocteau appears on a Paris stage. Settings by Pablo Picasso, music by Arthur Honegger, and costumes by Gabrielle Chanel. Antonin Artaud played the part of Tiresias.
- March 1 - USS Connecticut decommissioned
- March 2 - Time Magazine hits newsstands for the first time
- March 9 - Vladimir Lenin suffers a stroke, his third, which renders him bedridden and unable to speak; consequently he retires his position as Chairman of the Soviet government.
- April - End of Irish Civil War
- April 12 - Kandersteg International Scout Centre came into existence.
- April 23 - Ceremonial inauguration of Gdynia Seaport
- April 26 - Wedding of Prince Albert and Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon in Westminster Abbey
- May 23 - Launch of Belgium's SABENA Airlines
- May 27 - Ku Klux Klan defies law requiring publication of its members
- June 9 - Military coup in Bulgaria - prime minister Aleksandar Stamboliyski is ousted (he is killed June 14)
- June 18 - Etna volcano erupts - 60.000 made homeless

July-September

- July 6 - Union of Soviet Socialist Republics established
- July 10 - Large hailstones kill 23 in Rostow, Soviet Russia
- July 19-20 night - Assassination of Pancho Villa
- July 24 - The Treaty of Lausanne, settling the boundaries of modern Turkey, is signed in Switzerland by Greece, Bulgaria and other countries that fought in the First World War
- August 2 - Warren G. Harding, 29th President of the United States (1921 - 1923) dies in office and is succeeded by Calvin Coolidge (1923-1929).
- August 13 - First major sea-going ship arrives at Gdynia, newly constructed Polish seaport
- August 13 - Gustav Stresemann is named chancellor and founds a coalition government in Weimar Republic Germany
- September 1 - Great Kantō earthquake devastates Tokyo and Yokohama killing 142.807 people
- September 4 - In Lakehurst, New Jersey, the first American airship, the "USS Shenandoah, takes to the sky for the first time
- September 6 - Italian navy occupies Corfu in retaliation of murder of an Italian officer. League of Nations protests and they leave September 29
- September 8 - Honda Point Disaster: Seven US Navy destroyers ran aground off the California coast.
- September 9 - Atatürk founded the CHP.
- September 13 - Military coup in Spain - Miguel Primo de Rivera takes over, setting up a dictatorship.
- September 18-26 - Newspaper printers strike in New York
- September 26 - In Bayern, Gustav von Kuhr declares independence from Berlin

October-December

- October 29 - Turkey becomes a republic following the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire
- November 8 - Beer Hall Putsch: In Munich, Adolf Hitler leads the Nazis in an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government. Police and troops crush the attempt the next day
- November 12- Her Highness Princess Maud of Fife marries Captain Charles Alexander Carnegie in Wellington Barracks, London.
- November 15 - The inflation in Germany reaches its height. One dollar is worth 4,200,000,000,000 Reichsmarks (4.2 trillion). Gustav Stresemann abolishes the old currency
- November 23 - Gustav Stresemann's coalition government collapses
- December 12 - Po river dam bursts - 600 dead
- December 27 - Assassination attempt against the crown prince of Japan in Tokyo

Unknown dates

- Juan de la Cierva invents the autogyro, a rotary-winged aircraft with an unpowered rotor.
- Finnish flag carrier Finnair airline is started in Aero Oy.
- Interpol is set up.
- International Police Conference in Vienna
- Hoda Cha'arawi Association (formerly The Egyptian Feminist Union) is established in Egypt.
- Trade unions banned in Spain for 10 years.
- Police strike in Australia
- Regia Aeronautica, air force of Fascist Italy, is founded.
- American Law Institute established
- Moderation League of New York became part of movement for repeal of prohibition in United States.

Births

January-February

- January 1 - Roméo Sabourin, Canadian World War II spy (d. 1944)
- January 5 - Sam Phillips, American record producer (d. 2003)
- January 6 - Jacobo Timerman, Argentine writer (d. 1999)
- January 7 - Hugh Kenner, Canadian literary critic (d. 2003)
- January 8 - Johnny Wardle, English cricketer (d. 1985)
- January 16 - Anthony Hecht, American poet (d. 2004)
- January 19 - Jean Stapleton, American actress
- January 25 - Arvid Carlsson, Swedish scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- January 26 - Anne Jeffreys, American actress
- January 29 - Paddy Chayefsky, American writer (d. 1981)
- January 31 - Norman Mailer, American writer and journalist
- February 2 - James Dickey, American poet and author (d. 1997)
- February 2 - Liz Smith, American gossip columnist
- February 9 - Brendan Behan, Irish author (d. 1964)
- February 12 - Franco Zeffirelli, Italian film and opera director
- February 13 - Yfrah Neaman, Lebanese-born violinist (d. 2003)
- February 13 - Chuck Yeager, American pilot and NASA official
- February 20 - Forbes Burnham, President of Guyana (d. 1985)
- February 24 - David Soyer, American cellist
- February 27 - Dexter Gordon, American jazz saxophone player (d. 1990)

March-April

- March 6 - Ed McMahon, American television personality
- March 9 - Walter Kohn, Austrian-born physicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
- March 10 - Val Logsdon Fitch, American nuclear physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- March 12 - Wally Schirra, astronaut
- March 21 - Shri Mataji Nirmala Shrivastava, Indian founder of Sahaja Yoga
- March 25 - Wim van Est, Dutch cyclist (d. 2003)
- March 26 - Bob Elliott, American comedian
- March 27 - Louis Simpson, Jamaican-born poet
- March 30 - Milton Acorn, Canadian writer (d. 1986)
- April 2 - G. Spencer-Brown, British mathematician
- April 8 - George Fisher, American political cartoonist (d. 2003)
- April 8 - Edward Mulhare, Irish actor (d. 1997)
- April 13 - Don Adams, American actor and comedian (d. 2005)
- April 20 - Mother Angelica, American founder of the Eternal Word Television Network (EWTN)
- April 22 - Bettie Page, American model
- April 22 - Aaron Spelling, American television producer and writer
- April 23 - Dolph Briscoe, Governor of Texas

May-August

- May 1 - Joseph Heller, American novelist (d. 1999)
- May 2 - Patrick Hillery, President of Ireland
- May 3 - Ralph Hall, American politician
- May 5 - Richard Wollheim, British philosopher (d. 2003)
- May 7 - Anne Baxter, American actress (d. 1985)
- May 13 - Bea Arthur, American actress
- May 15 - John Lanchbery, English composer (d. 2003)
- May 16 - Merton Miller, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate
- May 18 - Hugh Shearer, Prime Minister of Jamaica (d. 2004)
- May 21 - Armand Borel, Swiss mathematician (d. 2003)
- May 21 - Dorothy Hewett, writer (d. 2002)
- May 21 - Ara Parseghian, American football coach
- May 26 - James Arness, American actor
- May 27 - Henry Kissinger, United States Secretary of State, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize
- May 28 - György Ligeti, Hungarian composer
- May 31 - Rainier III, Prince of Monaco (d. 2005)
- July 2 - Wislawa Szymborska, Polish writer, Nobel Prize laureate
- July 4 - Rudolf Friedrich, Swiss Federal Councilor
- July 8 - Harrison Dillard, American athlete
- July 18 - Jerome H. Lemelson, American inventor (d. 1997)
- July 20 - Stanisław Albinowski, Polish economist and journalist (d. 2005)
- July 21 - Rudolph A. Marcus, Canadian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
- July 22 - Robert Joseph Dole, American politician and Presidential candidate
- July 22 - Mukesh, Indian singer (d. 1976)
- July 23 - Witto Aloma, Cuban Major League Baseball player (d. 1997)
- August 5 - Devan Nair, third President of Singapore (d. 2005)
- August 20 - Jim Reeves, American singer (d. 1964)
- August 21 - Shimon Peres, Prime Minister of Israel, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize
- August 24 - Arthur Jensen, American educational psychologist
- August 26 - Wolfgang Sawallisch, German conductor and pianist

September-December

- September 1 - Kenneth Roy Thomson, 2nd Baron Thomson of Fleet, Canadian businessman and art collector
- September 1 - Rocky Marciano, American boxer (d. 1969)
- September 3 - Mort Walker, American cartoonist
- September 6 - King Peter II of Yugoslavia (d. 1970)
- September 9 - Daniel Carleton Gajdusek, American virologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- September 11 - Dharmsamrat Paramhans Swami Madhavananda, Indian guru (d. 2003)
- September 17 - Hank Williams, American country musician (d. 1953)
- September 20 - Geraldine Clinton Little, Irish-born poet (D. 1997
- September 22 - Dannie Abse, Welsh poet
- September 26 - Dev Anand, Indian actor
- October 3 - Edward Oliver LeBlanc, Dominican politician (d. 2004)
- October 5 - Albert Guðmundsson, Icelandic professional football player and politician (d. 1994)
- October 5 - Glynis Johns, British actress
- October 13 - Faas Wilkes, Dutch football (soccer) player
- October 15 - Italo Calvino, Italian writer (d. 1985)
- October 23 - Frank Sutton, American actor (d. 1974)
- November 1 - Victoria de los Angeles, Catalan soprano (d. 2005)
- November 1 - Gordon R. Dickson, Canadian author (d. 2001)
- November 8 - Jack Kilby, American electrical engineer, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physics (d. 2005)
- November 20 - Nadine Gordimer, South African writer, Nobel Prize laureate
- November 22 - Arthur Hiller, Canadian film director
- November 23 - Billy Haughton, American harness driver and trainer (d. 1986)
- November 25 - Mauno Koivisto, President of Finland
- December 2 - Maria Callas, Greek soprano (d. 1977)
- December 12 - Bob Barker, American game show host
- December 13 - Philip Warren Anderson, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- December 13 - Larry Doby, baseball player (d. 2003)
- December 13 - Antoni Tàpies, Catalan painter
- December 14 - Gerard Reve, Dutch writer
- December 15 - Freeman Dyson, English-born physicist
- December 23 - Claudio Scimone, Italian conductor
- December 23 - James Stockdale, U.S. Navy admiral
- December 24 - George Patton IV, American general (d. 2004)
- December 25 - Sonia Olschanezky, World War II heroine (d. 1944)

Deaths

- Michel-Joseph Maunoury, French general (b. 1847)
- January 9 - Katherine Mansfield, British novelist (b. 1888)
- January 23 - Max Nordau, Hungarian author, philosopher, and Zionist leader (b. 1849)
- February 10 - Wilhelm Röntgen, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1845)
- February 23 - Théophile Delcassé, French statesman (b. 1852)
- March 8 - Johannes Diderik van der Waals, Dutch physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1837)
- March 26 - Sarah Bernhardt, French actress (b. 1844)
- March 27 - Sir James Dewar, Scottish chemist (b. 1842)
- April 4 - John Venn, British mathematician (b. 1834)
- April 5 - George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon, English financier of Egyptian excavations (b. 1866)
- June 9 - Princess Helena of the United Kingdom (b. 1846)
- August 2 - Warren G. Harding, 29th President of the United States (b. 1865)
- October 30 - Andrew Bonar Law, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1858)
- December 12 - Raymond Radiguet, French author (b. 1903)
- December 13 - Théophile Steinlen, Swiss painter (b. 1859)

Nobel Prizes

- Physics - Robert Andrews Millikan
- Chemistry - Fritz Pregl
- Physiology or Medicine - Frederick Grant Banting, John James Richard Macleod
- Literature - William Butler Yeats
- Peace - Not awarded
- ko:1923년 ms:1923 ja:1923年 simple:1923 th:พ.ศ. 2466

World War I

, and the use of new, devastating weapons - tanks, aircraft, machine guns, and poison gas.]] World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, the War of the Nations and the War to End All Wars, was a world conflict lasting from 1914 to 1919, with the fighting lasting until 1918. The label World War I or First World War did not come into general use until after the outbreak of World War II in 1939, and until then it was known as the Great War or the World War. The war was fought by the Allied Powers on one side, and the Central Powers on the other. No previous conflict had mobilized so many soldiers or involved so many in the field of battle. By its end, the war had become the second bloodiest conflict in recorded history (behind the Taiping Rebellion), though it was surpassed within a generation by World War II. World War I became infamous for trench warfare; this was especially true of the Western Front. The trenches went from the North Sea to the border of Switzerland in Europe. More than 9 million died on the war's battlefields, and nearly that many more on the home fronts because of food shortages, genocide, and ground combat. Among other notable events, the first large-scale bombing from the air was undertaken and some of the century's first large-scale civilian massacres took place, as one of the aspects of modern efficient, non-chivalrous warfare. In the First World War 5% of casualties were civilian. In the Second World War that was 50%. World War I proved to be the decisive break with the old world order, marking the final demise of absolutist monarchy in Europe. Four empires were shattered: the German, the Austro-Hungarian, the Ottoman, and the Russian. Their four dynasties, the Hohenzollerns, the Habsburgs, the Ottomans, and the Romanovs, who had roots of power back to the days of the Crusades, all fell during or after the war. The post-war failure to deal effectively with many of the causes and results of the War would lead to the rise of Fascism in Italy, Nazism in Germany and the outbreak of World War II within a generation. The War was the catalyst for the Bolshevik Russian Revolution, which would inspire later Communist revolutions in countries as diverse as China and Cuba, and would lay the basis for the Cold War standoff between the Soviet Union and the United States. In the east, the demise of the Ottoman Empire paved the way for a modern democratic successor state, Turkey. In Central Europe, new states such as Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia were born and Poland was re-created. __TOC__

Causes

Poland of Franz Ferdinand. The murder was the igniting torch of World War I.]] :See also: Causes of World War I and Participants in World War I On June 28, 1914, Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria and heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, was assassinated in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb student. He was part of a group of fifteen assassins, acting with support from the Black Hand, a secret society founded by pan-Serbian nationalists, with links to the Serbian military. The assassination sparked little initial concern in Europe. The Archduke himself was not popular, least of all in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. While there were riots in Sarajevo following the Archduke's death, these were largely aimed at the Serbian minority. Though this assassination has been linked as the direct trigger for World War I, the war's real origins lie further back, in the complex web of alliances and counterbalances that developed between the various European powers after the defeat of France and formation of the German state under the leadership of Otto von Bismarck in 1871.

Reasons & Responsibilities

- See also: Causes of World War I There are many different hypotheses that try to explain who, or what, is to blame for the outbreak of the First World War. Early explanations, prominent in the 1920s and 1930s, stressed the official version of responsibility as described in the Treaty of Versailles and Treaty of Trianon, that Germany and its allies were solely responsible for the war. However, as time progressed, scholars began looking toward the rigidity of both German and Russian military planning, each of which stressed the importance of striking first and executing plans quickly. The fact that for many decades the British had been accustomed to colonial wars which were won relatively easily against much weaker adversaries certainly helped build enthusiasm for the Great war. In addition, the fact that no major political force opposed the war meant that those who did not agree with it had little organisational power to build opposition, though small protests continued throughout the war. Another cause of the war was the building of alliances and arms races. An example of the latter is the launch of HMS Dreadnought, a revolutionary battleship that rendered all previous ships obsolete as "pre-dreadnoughts", in 1906. This weakened Britain's power as a seafaring nation and sparked a major naval arms race in shipbuilding, particularly between Britain and Germany due to new imperialism. Overall, nations in the Triple Entente became fearful of the Triple Alliance and vice versa. The civilian leaders of the European powers also found themselves facing a wave of nationalist zeal that had been building across Europe for years. This left governments with ever fewer options and little room to manoeuvre as the last weeks of July 1914 slipped away. Frantic diplomatic efforts to mediate the Austrian-Serbian quarrel simply became irrelevant, as the automatic military escalations between Germany and Russia reinforced one another. Furthermore, the problem of communications in 1914 should not be underestimated; all nations still used telegraphy and ambassadors as the main form of communication, resulting in delays from hours to even days. There is probably no single concise or conclusive assessment of the exact cause of the First World War.

Outbreak of war

ambassadors are depicted in green, the Central Powers in red, and neutral countries in yellow.]] Austria–Hungary was created in the "Ausgleich of 1867" after Austria was defeated by Prussia. As agreed in 1867, the Habsburgs were the Emperors of the Austrian Empire. With the formation of the Dual Monarchy, Franz Josef became leader of a nation with sixteen ethnic groups and five major religions speaking no fewer than nine languages. In large measure because of the vast disparities that existed within the Empire, Austrians and Hungarians always viewed growing Slavic nationalism with deep suspicion and concern. Thus the Austro-Hungarian government grew worried with the near-doubling in size of neighbouring Serbia's territory as a result of the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913. Serbia, for its part, made no qualms about the fact that it viewed all of Southern Austria–Hungary as part of a future Great South Slavic Union. This view had also garnered considerable support in Russia. Many in the Austrian leadership, not least Habsburg Emperor Franz Joseph, and Conrad von Hötzendorf, worried that Serbian nationalist agitation in the southern provinces of the Empire would lead to further unrest among the Austro-Hungarian Empire's other disparate ethnic groups. The Austro-Hungarian government worried that a nationalist Russia would back Serbia to annex Slavic areas of Austria–Hungary. The feeling was that it was better to destroy Serbia before they were given the opportunity to launch a campaign. After the assassination of Franz Ferdinand by Gavrilo Princip and nearly a month of debate the government of Austria–Hungary sent a 10-point ultimatum to Serbia (July 23, 1914) — the so called July Ultimatum — to be unconditionally accepted within 48 hours. The ultimatum was the first of a series of diplomatic events known as the July Crisis which set off a chain reaction and a general war in Europe. The Serbian government agreed to all but one of the demands in the ultimatum, noting that participation in its judicial proceedings by a foreign power would violate its constitution. Austria–Hungary nonetheless broke off diplomatic relations (July 25) and declared war (July 28) through a telegram sent to the Serbian government. The Russian government, which had pledged in 1909 to uphold Serbian independence in return for Serbia's acceptance of the Bosnia annexation, mobilised its military reserves on 30 July following a breakdown in crucial telegram communications between Kaiser Wilhelm and Tsar Nicholas II (the famous "Willy and Nicky" correspondence), who was under pressure by his military staff to prepare for war. Germany demanded (31 July) that Russia stand down its forces, but the Russian government persisted, as demobilization would have made it impossible to re-activate its military schedule in the short term. Germany declared war against Russia on August 1 and, two days later, against the latter's ally France. The outbreak of the conflict is often attributed to the alliances established over the previous decades — Germany-Austria-Italy vs France-Russia; Britain and Serbia being aligned with the latter. In fact, none of the alliances were activated in the initial outbreak, though Russian general mobilization and Germany's declaration of war against France were motivated by fear of the opposing alliance being brought into play. Britain declared war against Germany on August 4. This was ostensibly provoked by Germany's invasion of Belgium on August 4 1914, whose independence Britain had guaranteed to uphold in the Treaty of London of 1839, and which stood astride the planned German route for invasion of Russia's ally France. Unofficially, it was already generally accepted in government that Britain could not remain neutral, since without the co-operation of France and Russia its colonies in Africa and India would be under threat, while German occupation of the French Atlantic ports would be an even larger threat to British trade as a whole.

The spread of war

;1914
- July 23: Austria-Hungary ultimatum to Serbia.
- July 28: Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia.
- July 31: Russia begins mobilization.
- August 1: Germany declares war on Russia.
- August 2: German troops occupy Luxembourg.
- August 3: Germany declares war on France.
- August 4: Germany invades neutral Belgium; the United Kingdom declares war on Germany in response.
- August 6: Montenegro sides with its traditional ally, Serbia, and declares war on Austria-Hungary.
- August 10: Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia.
- August 12: The United Kingdom and France declare war on Austria-Hungary.
- August 23: Japan declares war on Germany.
- September: Unity Pact signed by France, Britain, and Russia.
- October 9: Belgium falls to German troops at the Siege of Antwerp.
- October 29: The Ottoman Empire enters the war on the side of Germany and Austria-Hungary.
- November 2: Russia declares war on the Ottoman sultanate.
- November 5: France and United Kingdom declare war on the Ottoman sultanate.
- December 25: Christmas Truce in the Trenches. ;1915
- April 25: Gallipoli campaign commences. Turks defeat Allies crushingly.
- April 26: Italy secretly signs the London Pact with the Triple Entente.
- May 23: Italy declares war on Austria-Hungary.
- October 14: Bulgaria declares war on Serbia and enters the war on the side of Germany and Austria-Hungary. ;1916
- March 9: Germany declares war on Portugal (see Portugal in the Great War).
- August 27: Romania declares war on Austria-Hungary.
- August 28: Italy declares war on Germany. ;1917
- January 16: Germany sends the Zimmermann Telegram to Mexico, proposing an alliance against the United States.
- April 6: The United States declares war on Germany.
- June 27: Greece enters the war on the side of the Entente.
- July 6: Arab Revolt troops under Lawrence Of Arabia capture Aqaba, a main sea port for the Ottoman Empire.
- August 14: The Republic of China declares war on Germany.
- October 26: Brazil declares war on Germany.
- November 7: The October Revolution takes place in Russia.
- December 7: United States declares war on Austria-Hungary. ;1918
- January 8: President Woodrow Wilson made his famous Fourteen Points address, introducing the idea of a League of Nations.
- 3 March: Russia and the Central Powers sign the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, marking Russia's exit from World War I.
- October 30: Mudros/Turkish Armistice signed opening Turkish territory to Entente military operations.
- November 11: Armistice signed, end of World War I. ;1919
- 28 June: Treaty of Versailles, official end to World War I between the Entente and Germany. ;1920
- 4 June: Treaty of Trianon, partition of Austro-Hungarian Empire's Kingdom of Hungary. ;1923
- 24 July: Treaty of Lausanne, peace made with Turkey.
- 29 October: Turkey changes its government to republic.

Opening battles

republic Some of the very first actions of the war occurred far from Europe, in Africa and in the Pacific Ocean. On August 8 1914 a combined French and British Empire force invaded the German protectorate of Togoland. On August 10 German forces based in South-West Africa attacked South Africa. New Zealand occupied German Samoa (30 August 1914) and on September 11 the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force landed on the island of Neu Pommern, which formed part of German New Guinea. Within a few months the Entente forces had accepted the surrender of or driven out German forces in the Pacific. Sporadic and fierce fighting continued in Africa for the remainder of the war. In Europe, Germany and Austria-Hungary suffered from miscommunication regarding each army's intentions. Germany had originally guaranteed to support Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia, but the interpretations of this idea differed. Austro-Hungarian leaders thought Germany would cover her northern flank against Russia, but Germany had planned for Austria-Hungary to focus the majority of its troops on Russia while Germany dealt with France on the Western Front. This confusion forced the Austro-Hungarian army to split its troop concentrations from the south in order to meet the Russians in the north. The Serb army, coming up from the south of the country, met the Austrian army at the Battle of Cer on 12 August 1914. The Serbians occupied defensive positions against the Austrians. The first attack came on August 16th, between parts of the 21st Austro–Hungarian division and parts of the Serbian Combined division. In harsh night-time fighting the battle ebbed and flowed, until Stepa Stepanovic rallied the Serbian line. Three days later the Austrians retreated across the Danube</