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World Literature

World literature

World literature was long defined in the United States as an established canon of European masterpieces, but an emerging global perspective has challenged both this European focus and the very category of "the masterpiece", though today the term world literature is still used to denote the supposedly very best in literature.

See also

Comparative literature Category:Literary criticism Category:Literature by nationality

United States

:For alternative meanings, see the disambiguation page for US, USA, United States, or American. The United States of America is a federal democratic republic situated primarily in central North America. It comprises 50 states and one federal district, and has several territories. It is also referred to, with varying formality, as the United States, the U.S., the U.S.A., the States, or simply and most commonly, America. The official founding date of the United States is July 4, 1776, when the Second Continental Congress—representing thirteen British colonies—adopted the Declaration of Independence. However, the structure of the government was profoundly changed in 1788, when the states replaced the Articles of Confederation with the United States Constitution. The date on which each of the fifty states adopted the Constitution is typically regarded as the date that state "entered the Union" (became part of the United States). Since the mid-20th century, following World War II, the United States has emerged as a dominant global influence in economic, political, military, scientific, technological, and cultural affairs.

Geography and climate

The United States shares land borders with Canada (to the north) and Mexico (to the south), and territorial water boundaries with Canada, Russia, the Bahamas, and numerous smaller nations. It is otherwise bounded by the Pacific Ocean and the Bering Sea, in the west; the Arctic Ocean, in the northernmost areas; and the Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea, in the eastern and southeastern areas. Forty-eight of the states are in the single region between Canada and Mexico; this group is referred to, with varying precision and formality, as the continental or contiguous United States, sometimes abbreviated CONUS, and as the Lower 48. Alaska, which is not included in the term contiguous United States, is at the northwestern end of North America, separated from the Lower 48 by Canada. The archipelago of Hawaii is in the Pacific Ocean. The capital city, Washington, District of Columbia is a federal district located on land donated by the state of Maryland. (Virginia also donated land, but it was returned in 1847.) The United States also has overseas territories with varying levels of independence and organization. When inland water is included in the total area, only Russia and Canada are larger than the United States; if inland water is excluded, China ranks third and the U.S. ranks fourth. The United States' total area is 3,718,711 square miles (9,631,418 km²), of which land makes up 3,537,438 square miles (9,161,923 km²) and water makes up 181,273 square miles (469,495 km²). The United States' landscape is one of the most varied among those of the world's nations: among its many features are temperate forestland and rolling hills, on the east coast; mangrove, in Florida; the Great Plains, in the center of the country; the Mississippi–Missouri river system; the Great Lakes, four of the five of which are shared with Canada; the Rocky Mountains, west of the Great Plains; deserts and temperate coastal zones, west of the Rocky Mountains; and temperate rain forests, in the Pacific northwest. Alaska's tundra, and the volcanic, tropical islands of Hawaii add to the geographic diversity. Hawaii The climate varies along with the landscape, from tropical in Hawaii and southern Florida to tundra in Alaska and atop some of the highest mountains. Most of the North and East experience a temperate continental climate, with warm summers and cold winters. Most of the South experiences a subtropical humid climate with mild winters and long, hot, humid summers. Rainfall decreases markedly from the humid forests of the Eastern Great Plains to the semi-arid shortgrass prairies on the high plains abutting the Rocky Mountains. Arid deserts, including the Mojave, extend through the lowlands and valleys of the southwest, from westernmost Texas to California and northward throughout much of Nevada. Some parts of California have a Mediterranean climate. Rainforests line the windward mountains of the Pacific Northwest from Oregon to Alaska.

History

American history started with the migration of people from Asia across the Bering land bridge approximately 12,000 years ago following large animals that they hunted into the Americas. These Native Americans left evidence of their presence in petroglyphs, burial mounds, and other artifacts. It is estimated that 2-9 million people lived in the territory now occupied by the U.S. before European contact, and the subsequent introduction of foreign diseases such as small pox that greatly diminished the native populations. Some advanced societies were the Anasazi of the southwest, who inhabited Chaco Canyon, and the Woodland Indians, who built Cahokia, located near present-day St Louis, a city with a population of 40,000 at its peak in AD 1200. Vikings first visited North America around 1000, but did not settle permanently. Following the discovery voyages of Christopher Columbus around 1492, other Europeans began to explore and settle there. During the 1500s and 1600s, the Spanish settled parts of the present-day Southwest and Florida, founding St. Augustine, Florida in 1565 and Santa Fe (in what is now New Mexico) in 1607. The first successful English settlement was at Jamestown, Virginia, also in 1607. Within the next two decades, several Dutch settlements, including New Amsterdam (the predecessor to New York City), were established in what are now the states of New York and New Jersey. In 1637, Sweden established a colony at Fort Christina (in what is now Delaware), but lost the settlement to the Dutch in 1655. This was followed by extensive British settlement of the east coast. The British colonists remained relatively undisturbed by their home country until after the French and Indian War, when France ceded Canada and the Great Lakes region to Britain. Britain then imposed taxes on the 13 colonies, widely regarded by the colonists as unfair because they were denied representation in the British Parliament. Tensions between Britain and the colonists increased, and the thirteen colonies eventually rebelled against British rule. British Parliament, George Washington (1789-1797).]] In 1776, the 13 colonies split from Great Britain and formed the United States, the world's first constitutional and democratic federal republic, after their Declaration of Independence of that year, and the Revolutionary War (1775 to 1783). The original political structure was a confederation in 1777, ratified in 1781 as the Articles of Confederation. After long debate, this was supplanted by the Constitution in 1789, forming a more centralized federal government. Prior to all these was the Albany Congress in 1754, in which a union was first seriously proposed. From early colonial times, there was a shortage of labor, which encouraged unfree labor, particularly indentured servitude and slavery. In the mid-19th century, a major division occurred in the United States over the issue of states' rights and the expansion of slavery. The northern states had become opposed to slavery, while the southern states saw it as necessary for the continued success of southern agriculture and wanted it expanded to the territories. Several federal laws were passed in an attempt to settle the dispute, including the Missouri Compromise and the Compromise of 1850. The dispute reached a crisis in 1861, when seven southern states seceded1 from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America, leading to the Civil War. Soon after the war began, four more southern states seceded. During the war, Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, mandating the freedom of all slaves in states in rebellion, though full emancipation did not take place until after the end of the war in 1865, the dissolution of the Confederacy, and the Thirteenth Amendment took effect. The Civil War effectively ended the question of a state's right to secede, and is widely accepted as a major turning point after which the federal government became more powerful than state governments. Thirteenth Amendment). The title of the painting, from a 1726 poem by Bishop Berkeley, was a phrase often quoted in the era of Manifest Destiny, expressing a widely held belief that civilization had steadily moved westward throughout history. [http://americanart.si.edu/t2go/1lw/1931.6.1.html (more)] ]] During the 19th century, many new states were added to the original 13 as the nation expanded across the continent. Manifest Destiny was a philosophy that encouraged westward expansion in the United States. As the population of the Eastern states grew and as a steady increase of immigrants entered the country, settlers moved steadily westward across North America. In the process, the U.S. displaced most American Indian nations. This displacement of American Indians continues to be a matter of contention in the U.S. with many tribes attempting to assert their original claims to various lands. In some areas American Indian populations were reduced by foreign diseases contracted through contact with European settlers, and US settlers acquired those emptied lands. In other instances American Indians were removed from their traditional lands by force. Though some would say the U.S. was not a colonial power until the Spanish-American War when it acquired Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines, the dominion exercised over land in North America the United States claimed is essentially colonial. The Philippines became independent in 1946. During this period, the nation also became an industrial power. This continued into the 20th century, which has been termed "the American Century" because of the nation's overriding influence on the world. The US became a center for innovation and technological development; major technologies that America either developed or was greatly involved in improving include the telephone, television, computer, the Internet, nuclear weapons, nuclear power, aviation, and aeronautics. In addition to the Civil War, another major traumatic experience for the nation was the Great Depression (1929 to 1939). The nation has also taken part in several major foreign wars, including World War I and World War II (in both of which the US later joined the Allies). During the Cold War, the US was a major player in the Korean War and Vietnam War, and, along with the Soviet Union, was considered one of the world's two "superpowers". With the collapse of the Soviet Union, the US emerged as the world's leading economic and military power. Beginning in the 1990s, the United States became very involved in police actions and peacekeeping, including actions in Kosovo, Haiti, Somalia and Liberia, and the first Persian Gulf War driving Iraq out of Kuwait. After attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on September 11, 2001, the United States and other allied nations found themselves involved in what has come to be called the "War on Terrorism," which has primarily encompassed military actions in both Afghanistan and Iraq.

Government

Iraq of the United States.]]

Republic and suffrage

The United States is an example of a constitutional republic, with a government composed of and operating through a set of limited powers imposed by its design and enumerated in the United States Constitution. Specifically, the nation operates as a presidential democracy. There are three levels of government: federal, state, and local. Officials of each of these levels are either elected by eligible voters via secret ballot or appointed by other elected officials. Americans enjoy almost universal suffrage from the age of 18 regardless of race, sex, or wealth. There are some limits, however: felons are disenfranchised and in some states former felons are likewise. Furthermore, the national representation of territories and the federal district of Washington, DC in Congress is limited: residents of the District of Columbia are subject to federal laws and federal taxes but their only Congressional representative is a non-voting delegate.

Federal government

The federal government is the national government, comprising the Legislative Branch (led by Congress), the Executive Branch (led by the President), and the Judicial Branch (led by the Supreme Court). These three branches were designed to apply checks and balances on each other. The Constitution limits the powers of the federal government to defense, foreign affairs, the issuing and management of currency, the management of trade and relations between the states, and the protection of human rights. In addition to these explicitly stated powers, the federal government—with the assistance of the Supreme Court—has gradually extended these powers into such areas as welfare and education, on the basis of the "necessary and proper" clause of the Constitution.

The Congress

necessary and proper The Congress of the United States is the legislative branch of the federal government of the United States. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate. The House of Representatives consists of 435 members, each of whom represents a congressional district and serves for a two-year term. House seats are apportioned among the states by population; in contrast, each state has two Senators, regardless of population. There are a total of 100 senators, who serve six-year terms. The powers of Congress are limited to those enumerated in the Constitution; all other powers are reserved to the states and the people. The Constitution also includes the necessary-and-proper clause, which grants Congress the power to "make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers."

The President

necessary-and-proper clause At the top level of the executive branch is the President of the United States. The President and Vice-President are elected as 'running mates' for four-year terms by the Electoral College, for which each state, as well as the District of Columbia, is allocated a number of seats based on its representation (or ostensible representation, in the case of D. C.) in both houses of Congress (see U.S. Electoral College). The relationship between the President and the Congress reflects that between the English monarchy and parliament at the time of the framing of the United States Constitution. Congress can legislate to constrain the President's executive power, even with respect to his or her command of the armed forces; however, this power is used only very rarely—a notable example was the constraint placed on President Richard Nixon's strategy of bombing Cambodia during the Vietnam War. The President cannot directly propose legislation, and must rely on supporters in Congress to promote his or her legislative agenda. The President's signature is required to turn congressional bills into law; in this respect, the President has the power—only occasionally used—to veto congressional legislation. Congress can override a presidential veto with a two-thirds majority vote in both houses. The ultimate power of Congress over the President is that of impeachment or removal of the elected President through a House vote, a Senate trial, and a Senate vote. The threat of using this power has had major political ramifications in the cases of Presidents Andrew Johnson, Richard Nixon, and Bill Clinton. The President makes around 2,000 executive appointments, including members of the Cabinet and ambassadors, which must be approved by the Senate; the President can also issue executive orders and pardons, and has other Constitutional duties, among them the requirement to give a State of the Union address to Congress once a year. Although the President's constitutional role may appear to be constrained, in practice, the office carries enormous prestige that typically eclipses the power of Congress: the Presidency has justifiably been referred to as 'the most powerful office in the world'. The Vice President is first in the line of succession, and is the President of the Senate ex officio, with the ability to cast a tie-breaking vote. The members of the President's Cabinet are responsible for administering the various departments of state, including the Department of Defense, the Justice Department, and the State Department. These departments and department heads have considerable regulatory and political power, and it is they who are responsible for executing federal laws and regulations. George W. Bush is the 43rd President, currently serving his second term.

The Courts

George W. Bush The highest court is the Supreme Court, which consists of nine justices. The court deals with federal and constitutional matters, and can declare legislation made at any level of the government as unconstitutional, nullifying the law and creating precedent for future law and decisions. Below the Supreme Court are the courts of appeals, and below them in turn are the district courts, which are the general trial courts for federal law. Separate from, but not entirely independent of, this federal court system are the individual court systems of each state, each dealing with its own laws and having its own judicial rules and procedures. A case may be appealed from a state court to a federal court only if there is a federal question; the supreme court of each state is the final authority on the interpretation of that state's laws and constitution.

State and local governments

supreme court of each state. Note that Alaska and Hawaii are shown at different scales, and that the Aleutian Islands and the uninhabited Northwestern Hawaiian Islands are omitted from this map.]] The state governments have the greatest influence over people's daily lives. Each state has its own written constitution and has different laws. There are sometimes great differences in law and procedure between the different states, concerning issues such as property, crime, health, and education. The highest elected official of each state is the Governor. Each state also has an elected legislature (bicameral in every state except Nebraska), whose members represent the different parts of the state. Of note is the New Hampshire legislature, which is the third-largest legislative body in the English-speaking world, and has one representative for every 3,000 people. Each state maintains its own judiciary, with the lowest level typically being county courts, and culminating in each state supreme court, though sometimes named differently. In some states, supreme and lower court justices are elected by the people; in others, they are appointed, as they are in the federal system. The institutions that are responsible for local government are typically town, city, or county boards, making laws that affect their particular area. These laws concern issues such as traffic, the sale of alcohol, and keeping animals. The highest elected official of a town or city is usually the mayor. In New England, towns operate directly democratically, and in some states, such as Rhode Island and Connecticut, counties have little or no power, existing only as geographic distinctions. In other areas, county governments have more power, such as to collect taxes and maintain law enforcement agencies.

Political divisions

With the Declaration of Independence, the thirteen colonies proclaimed themselves to be nation states modeled after the European states of the time. Although considered as sovereigns initially, under the Articles of Confederation of 1781 they entered into a "Perpetual Union" and created a fully sovereign federal state, delegating certain powers to the national Congress, including the right to engage in diplomatic relations and to levy war, while each retaining their individual sovereignty, freedom and independence. But the national government proved too ineffective, so the administrative structure of the government was vastly reorganized with the United States Constitution of 1789. Under this new union, the continued status of the individual states as sovereign nation states fell into dispute in 1861, as several states attempted to secede from the union; in response, then-President Abraham Lincoln claimed that such secession was illegal, and the result was the American Civil War. Since the Union victory in 1865, the independent status of the individual states has not been broached again by any state, and the status of each state within the union has been deemed by mainstream officials and academics to be settled as being subordinate to the union as a whole. In subsequent years, the number of states grew steadily due to western expansion, the purchase of lands by the national government from other nation states, and the subdivision of existing states, resulting in the current total of 50. The states are generally divided into smaller administrative regions, including counties, cities and townships. The United States–Canadian border is the longest undefended political boundary in the world. The U.S. is divided into three distinct sections:
- the "continental United States," also known as "the Lower 48" and more accurately termed the conterminous, coterminous or contiguous United States
- Alaska, which is physically connected only to Canada
- the archipelago of Hawaii, in the central Pacific Ocean. The United States also holds several other territories, districts, and possessions, notably the federal district of the District of Columbia, which is the nation's capital, and several overseas insular areas, the most significant of which are American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the United States Virgin Islands. The Palmyra Atoll is the United States' only incorporated territory; it is unorganized and uninhabited. The United States Navy has held a base at a portion of Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, since 1898. The United States government possesses a lease to this land, which only mutual agreement or United States abandonment of the area can terminate. The present Cuban government of Fidel Castro disputes this arrangement, claiming Cuba was not truly sovereign at the time of the signing. The United States argues this point moot because Cuba apparently ratified the lease post-revolution, and with full sovereignty, when it cashed one rent check in accordance with the disputed treaty.

Foreign relations and military

sovereign] The immense military and economic dominance of the United States has made foreign relations an especially important topic in its politics, with considerable concern about the image of the United States throughout the world. Reactions towards the United States by other nationalities are often strong, ranging from uninhibited admiration and mimicking of all things American to anti-Americanism. US foreign policy has swung about several times over the course of its history between the poles of strict isolationism and imperialism and everywhere in between. Three of the nation's four military branches are administered by the Department of Defense: the Army, the Navy (including the Marine Corps), and the Air Force. The Coast Guard falls under the jurisdiction of the Department of Homeland Security in peacetime, but is placed under the Department of the Navy in time of war. The combined United States armed forces consist of 1.4 million active duty personnel, along with several hundred thousand each in the Reserves and the National Guard. Military conscription ended in 1973. The United States Armed forces are considered to be the most powerful military (of any sort) on Earth and their force projection capabilities are unrivaled by any other nation. The 2005 defense budget amounted to $401.7 billion, which is an increase of 4% over 2004 and of 35% since 2001. Over 50% of that number is spent in research & development. (For comparison, in 2004 the European Union (considered as the second-largest military force) had a combined total of 1.6 million troops, and a defense budget of €160 billion, with less than 10% of that being spent on R&D.)

Largest cities

The United States has dozens of major cities, including 11 of the 55 global cities of all types — with three "alpha" global cities: New York City, Los Angeles, and Chicago. The figures expressed below are for populations within city limits. A different ranking is evident when considering U.S. metro area populations, although the top three would be unchanged. Note that some cities not listed (such as Atlanta, Boston, Las Vegas, Miami, Nashville, New Orleans, Seattle, and Washington, D.C.) are still considered important on the basis of other factors and issues, including culture, economics, heritage, and politics. The twenty largest cities, based on the United States Census Bureau's 2004 estimates, are as follows:

Economy

The United States has the largest single-country economy in the world, with a per-capita gross domestic product of $40,100. In this market-oriented economy, private individuals and business firms make most of the decisions, and the federal and state governments buy needed goods and services predominantly in the private marketplace. gross domestic product The largest industry of the U.S. is now service, which employs roughly three quarters of the U.S. work force. The United States has many natural resources, including oil and gas, metals, and such minerals as gold, soda ash, and zinc. In agriculture, the U.S. is a top producer of, among other crops, corn, soy beans, and wheat; the United States is a net exporter of food. The U.S. manufacturing sector produces goods such as, cars, airplanes, steel, and electronics, among many others. Economic activity varies greatly from one part of the country to another, with many industries being largely dependent on a certain city or region; New York City is the center of the American financial, publishing, broadcasting, and advertising industries; Silicon Valley is the country’s primary location for high-technology companies, while Los Angeles is the most important center for film production. The Midwest is known for its reliance on manufacturing and heavy industry, with Detroit, Michigan, serving as the center of the American automotive industry; the Great Plains are known as the "breadbasket" of America for their tremendous agricultural output; the intermountain region serves as a mining hub and natural gas resource; the Pacific Northwest for fish and timber, while Texas is largely associated with the oil industry; the Southeast is a major hub for both medical research and the textiles industry. Several countries continue to link their currency to the dollar or even use it as a currency (such as Ecuador), although this practice has subsided since the collapse of the Bretton Woods system. Many markets are also quoted in dollars, such as those of oil and gold. The dollar is also the predominant reserve currency in the world, and more than half of global reserves are in dollars. The largest trading partner of the United States is Canada (19%), followed by China (12%), Mexico (11%), and Japan (8%). More than 50% of total trade is with these four countries. In 2003, the United States was ranked as the third most visited tourist destination in the world; its 40,400,000 visitors ranked behind France's 75,000,000 and Spain's 52,500,000. Labor unions have existed since the 19th century, and grew large and powerful from the 1930s to the 1950s. See Labor history of the United States. Since 1970 they have shrunk in the private sector and now cover fewer than 8% of the workers. However union membership has grown rapidly in the public sector, especially among teachers, nurses, police, postal workers, and municipal clerks. There have been few strikes in recent years. The United States' imports exceed exports by 80%, leading to an annual trade deficit of $700,000,000,000, or 6% of gross domestic product. It is the largest debtor nation in the world, with total gross foreign debt of over $13,000,000,000,000 (2005 estimate); and it absorbs more than 50% of global savings annually. Since the 1980s, the U.S. has increased the use of neoliberal economic policies that reduce government intervention and reduce the size of the welfare state, backing away from the more interventionist Keynsian economic policies that had been in favor since the Great Depression. As a result, the United States provides fewer government-delivered social welfare services than most industrialized nations, choosing instead to keep its tax burden lower and relying more heavily on the free market and private charities. Sixteen states and the District of Columbia have minimum wages higher than the national level ($5.15 per-hour), including the highest, Washington State at $7.35. Twenty-six states are the same as the federal level; two--Ohio and Kansas--are below; and six do not have state laws. America's wealth is relatively highly concentrated. The average C.E.O. earns 500 times the typical amount a worker grosses, this is up from 25 times in the late 1970s. In terms of wealth the top 1% of Americans own 40% of all assets and 50.1% of the country's income goes to the top twenty percent of households. Average wages for the majority of employees have been largely stagnating since the 1970s. America's poverty line defined as a family of four earning less than $19,157 is at 12.7% of the general population. Approximately one out of every five children in the United States grows up below the official poverty line. Among racial groups; African Americans have the lowest median income while Asians had the highest. Regionally, the southern states had the lowest median incomes while the West Coast and New England had the highest. The current Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan remarked that the U.S.’s growing income inequality since the 1970s is, "not the type of thing which a democratic society - a capitalist democratic society - can really accept without addressing."[http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0614/p01s03-usec.html?s=itm] However, Greenspan also noted, "...you can look at the system and say it's got a lot of problems to it, and sure it does. It always has. But you can't get around the fact that this is the most extraordinarily successful economy in history."

Transportation

Alan Greenspan ]] Because the United States is a relatively young nation, most of the development of U.S. cities has taken place since the invention of the automobile. To link its vast territory, the United States built a network of high-capacity, high-speed highways, of which the most important element is the Interstate Highway system, commissioned in the 1950s by President Dwight D. Eisenhower and modeled after the German Autobahn. The United States also has a transcontinental rail system, which is used for moving freight across the lower forty-eight states. Passenger rail service is provided by Amtrak, which serves forty-six of the lower forty-eight states. Many cities in the United States have extensive mass-transit systems. New York City operates one of the world's largest and most heavily used subway systems. The regional rail and bus networks that extend into Long Island, New Jersey, Upstate New York, and Connecticut are among the most heavily used in the world. Air travel is often preferred for destinations over 300 miles (500 kilometers) away. In terms of passengers, seventeen of the world's thirty busiest airports in 2004 were in the U.S., including the world's busiest, Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport; in terms of cargo, in the same year, twelve of the world's thirty busiest airports were in the U.S., including the world's busiest, Memphis International Airport. There are several major seaports in the United States; the three busiest are the Port of Los Angeles, California; the Port of Long Beach, California; and the Port of New York and New Jersey. Others include Houston, Texas; Charleston, South Carolina; Savannah, Georgia; Miami, Florida; Portland, Oregon; San Francisco, California; Boston, Massachusetts; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; and Seattle, Washington; plus, outside the contiguous forty-eight states, Anchorage, Alaska, and Honolulu, Hawaii.

Society

Demographics

Hawaii The mean center of the U.S. population continues to drift farther west and south. The fastest growing region is the western United States followed by the southern portion. According to Census 2000, the states that saw the greatest increases from 1990 were: Nevada (66.3%), Arizona (40%), Colorado (30.6%), Utah (29.6%), Idaho (28.5%), Georgia (26.4%), Florida (23.5%), Texas (22.8%), North Carolina (21.4%), and Washington (21.1%). [http://www.census.gov/population/cen2000/phc-t2/tab03.pdf]

Ethnicity and race

:Main article: Racial demographics of the United States The United States is a very racially diverse country. According to the 2000 census, it has 31 ethnic groups with at least one million members each, and numerous others represented in smaller amounts. The majority of Americans descend from white European immigrants who arrived at the establishment of the first colonies (most after Reconstruction). This majority--69.1% in 2000--decreases each year, and is expected to become a plurality within a few decades. The most frequently stated European ancestries are German (15.2%), Irish (10.8%), English (8.7%), Italian (5.6%) and Scandinavian (3.7%). Many immigrants also hail from Slavic countries such as Poland and Russia. Other significant immigrant populations came from eastern and southern Europe and French Canada. Russia Hispanics from Mexico and South and Central America are the largest minority group in the country, comprising 12.5% of the population (2000 census). People of Mexican descent made up 7.3% of the population in the 2000 census, and this proportion is expected to increase significantly in the coming decades. About 12.3% (2000 census) of the American people are African Americans (Blacks). African Americans are spread throughout the country, but their presence is largest in the South. Asian Americans--including Native Hawaiians and Pacific Islanders--are a third significant minority (3.7% of the population in 2000). Most Asian Americans are concentrated on the West Coast and Hawaii. The largest groups are immigrants or descendants of emigrants from the Philippines, China, India, Vietnam, South Korea, and Japan. Indigenous peoples in the United States, such as American Indians and Inuit, make up 0.9% of the population (2000 census). About 35% live on Indian reservations.

Religion

Polls estimate that just under 80 percent of Americans are Christians of various denominations. The other 20 percent comprises other religions such as Hinduism, Judaism, Islam, and Buddhism, other various faiths, and those without a specific religion. The United States is noteworthy among developed nations for its relatively high level of religiosity. According to a 2004 Gallup poll, about 44% of Americans attend a religious service at least once a week. However, this rate is not uniform across the country; attendance is more common in the Bible Belt—composed largely of Southern and Midwestern states—than in the Northeast and West Coast. In the Southern states, Baptists are the largest group, followed by Methodists; Roman Catholics are dominant in the Northeast and in large parts of the Midwest due to their being settled by descendants of Catholic immigrants from Europe (such as Germany, Ireland, Italy, and Poland) or other parts of North America (mainly Quebec and Puerto Rico). The rest of the country for the most part has a complex mixture of various Christian groups.

Education

West Coast's home at Monticello and the University of Virginia (library building shown above, and designed by Jefferson), the only collegiate campus on the list. Both sites are located in Charlottesville, Virginia.]] In the United States, education is a state, not federal, responsibility, and the laws and standards vary considerably. However, the federal government, through the Department of Education, is involved with funding of some programs and exerts some influence through its ability to control funding. In most states, all students must attend mandatory schooling starting with kindergarten, which children normally enter at age 5, and following through 12th grade, which is normally completed at age 18

Masterpiece

Originally, the term masterpiece (or chef d'oeuvre) referred to a piece of handicraft art produced by a journeyman aspiring to become a master craftsman in the old European guild system, which is partially retained today only in Germany. These were (or are) typically perfect pieces of handicraft art, admired for their beauty and elegance. Nowadays this term mostly refers to any work of art that is considered extraordinarily well-performed.

See also


- Magnum opus(I) Category:Visual arts Π



Category:Literary criticism

Category:Literature

Ragnaros

This is an alphabetical list with the major and minor characters in the Warcraft universe — a fictional universe in which a series of games and books are set. The characters featured here have been featured prominently at one time or another in the Warcraft universe, and commonly depicted as heroes or villains that contributed to the changes in the Warcraft universe and timeline.

Aedelas Blackmoore

A human officer who captured the son of Durotan, and future Horde warchief, Thrall. Aedelas trained Thrall as a powerful gladiator.

Aegwynn (Magna Aegwynn)

: Main article: Aegwynn Aegwynn was the second-last Guardian who defeated the Titan Sargeras. She is the mother of the Last Guardian Medivh.
- Appears in the novelization Warcraft: The Last Guardian

Alextrasza

The queen of the Red dragons, she was held captive by an Orc Warlock named Nekros Skullcrusher, by means of a special artifact called the "Demon Soul". She was able to escape her enslavement by the assistance of a young mage named Rhonin, and killed her former captor, thus ending the final bastion of Orc power during the Second War.
- Appears in Warcraft: War of the Ancients trilogy
- Appears in Warcraft: Day of the Dragon

Alleria Windrunner

Aegwynn Alleria Windrunner was a hero of Warcraft II, the sister of Sylvanas Windrunner, and Vereesa Windrunner, hero of the Day of the Dragon. Alleria was featured in Warcraft II: Beyond the Dark Portal, where she is first escorted by the Paladin Turalyon and Danath to New Stormwind Keep. Then, she along with her allies are seen defending Human towns and fortifications from the oncoming Orc threat. Her whereabouts after Beyond the Dark Portal are unknown, and is speculated to be either dead or barely made it to safety (as in the case of Khadgar and her companions). A huge statue stands in her honor at Stormwind during World of Warcraft, which seems to suggest that she died on Draenor when the world tore apart, but the statue's plaque indicates that her fate is unknown to those of Stormwind, and that she is simply assumed to be dead (effectively "Missing In Action".)
- Appears in Warcraft II: Beyond the Dark Portal

Aman`thul

: Main article: Aman'thul (Warcraft) Aman`thul, the Timeless One (also known as the Highfather), was one of the Titans that visited World of Azeroth to bring order. The Titans defeated the Old Gods and imprisoned them deep underground When they completed their task, they charged the great dragons with watching over Kalimdor. Aman`thul imbued portion of his power on Nozdormu to guard time itself and police the ever-spinning pathways of fate and destiny.

Anduin Lothar

: Main article: Anduin Lothar Anduin Lothar was Champion of King Llane of Azeroth, staunch defender of Azeroth until his death. Best friend to Medivh and Llane in their childhood days. From the fall of Azeroth to Lothar's death at the end of the Second War, he was Regent of Stormwind, ruling the Azerothien remnant in the place of the then-infant King Varrian Wrynn.
- Appears in Warcraft: Orcs and Humans
- Appears in Warcraft II: Tides of Darkness

Anetheron

Anetheron was one of the four Nathrezim Dreadlords that held the Lich King captive and was one of the masterminds behind the Burning Legion's return. Anetheron was a ferocious Dreadlord and although not the greatest of the four, his powers were certainly formidable.
- Appears in Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos

Antonidas

: Main article: Antonidas Antonidas was a former Archmage and ruler of Dalaran. He taught the sorceress Jaina Proudmore Archmagi magics. Was later slain by the Death knight Arthas.
- Appears in Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos
- Appears in Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne

Anub'arak

: Main article: Anub'arak Ancient king of the Nerubians, changed his loyalty to the Lich King, now defends Northrend for the Scourge. He saw Arthas safely through Northrend on his return to The Frozen Throne while The Lich King's power was waning.
- Appears in Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne

Archimonde

: Main article: Archimonde Also known as the Defiler. Chosen by Sargeras as the leader of the first invasion of the Burning Legion. Slain during his assault upon The World Tree.
- Appears in Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos
- To appear in the Caverns of Time in World of Warcraft

Arthas Menethil

: Main article: Arthas Menethil Son of King Terenas Menethil, former Prince and Paladin of the Kingdom of Lordaeron; soul taken by the Runeblade Frostmourne, and became a Death Knight. Now fused with the Ner'zhul the Lich King, he has become one of the most powerful beings the universe has ever seen. King of the Scourge, and technically still King of Lorderon.
- Appears in Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos
- Appears in Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne

Arugal

: Main article: Arugal Arugal was once a member of the Kirin Tor of Dalaran in the fictional Warcraft universe. However after the Scourge destroyed Dalaran he fled to Shadowfang Keep which resides above Pyrewood Village. Once there, Arugal began to experiment on people, transforming them into werewolves.
- Appears in World of Warcraft as the instance boss in Shadowfang Keep.

Azgalor

Shadowfang Keep A Pit Lord who took over leadership of the Pit Lords after the fall of Mannoroth. He participated on the Battle of Mount Hyjal and was seemingly slain.
- Appears in Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos

Azshara

: Main article: Azshara Former Queen of the Kaldorei Highborne (Elves from Kalimdor), became obsessed with magic. Corrupted by magic and worshipping Sargeras, they evolved into being the Naga.
- Appears in the Warcraft manuals.
- Also appears in the War of The Ancients Trilogy

Balnazzar

: Main article: Balnazzar A Nathrezim Dreadlord, agent of the Burning Legion in Lordaeron. Took part in a coup to overthrow Arthas as head of the Scourge. Thought to have been slain by Varimathras under the orders of Sylvanas Windrunner, is actually still alive and currently heads the Scarlet Crusade.
- Appears in Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos
- Appears in World of Warcraft

Baine Bloodhoof

: Main article: Baine Bloodhoof Baine Bloodhoof is the son of Tauren chieftan Cairne Bloodhoof and chief of Bloodhoof Village in Mulgore. If Cairne were to die or step down, it is believed that Baine will assume the role of chieftain of the tribes. In the Bonus Orc Campaign of Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne, Baine caused a great sense of worry and lethargy in his father when he was abducted by Centaurs.
- Appears in Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne
- Appears in World of Warcraft

Baron Rivendare

Baron Rivendare is a Death Knight who rules over the ravaged city of Stratholme. He is responsible for having corrupted many of the paladins of the Silver Hand and turning them into Death Knights.
- Appears in World of Warcraft

Blackhand

Cairne Bloodhoof : Main article: Blackhand (Warcraft) Blackhand the Destroyer was leader of the Blackrock clan, father of Rend and Maim. Gul'dan made him Warchief of the Horde. His base of operations was the Blackrock Spire, featured in the Warcraft I scenarios (during the timeframe known as the First War). He was overthrown and succeeded by Orgrim Doomhammer when Doomhammer discovered he was being used by Gul'dan.
- Appears in Warcraft: Orcs and Humans

Cairne Bloodhoof

: Main article: Cairne Bloodhoof Chieftain of the Tauren in Thunder Bluff, and a Shaman by nature. Father of Baine Bloodhoof. Cairne and his people were saved by Thrall and his warriors from the Centaur. He then honored their bravery by joining The Horde. He now leads his people from Thunderbluff, although he yearns for the day he can step down and retire to the wilds.
- Appears in Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos
- Appears in Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne
- Appears in World of Warcraft

Captain Placeholder

: Main article: Captain Placeholder Non playable character (NPC) in the World of Warcraft. For a short time, transport between zones via boat was unstable from Menethil Harbor to Darkshore. Specfically, a bug in the game caused the boat to disappear while transitioning between zones, dumping its passengers into the open sea and to their deaths. Captain Placeholder was placed on the dock at Menetil Harbor as a temporary solution while boat transport was suspended pending a fix. Captain Placeholder would teleport players to the Darkshore dock instantly when asked. A similar NPC, with a different name, was placed at the Darkshore dock. Both NPC's were removed when the boats were fixed.
- Appears in World of Warcraft

Cenarius

: Main article: Cenarius The demi-god of the Night Elves who was slain by Grom Hellscream while under the influence of Mannoroth's blood curse. It should be noted that only the earthly manifestation of Cenarius was killed. His spirit lives on in the Emerald Dream, where he fights against the Nightmare that has consumed the Dream and the once-noble Green Dragonflight.
- Appears in Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos
- Appears in "Warcraft: War of the Ancients trilogy"

Chen Stormstout

Chen Stormstout is a Pandaren Brewmaster featured in the bonus campaign 'the Founding of Durotar' in the 'Frozen Throne' He is encountered in the middle of the first act and sets Rexxar on a quest to find several ingredients for his brew. After Rexxar completes the quest, Chen offers his help to him and join his crew. Also, in World of Warcraft, you can discover an item called Chen's Empty Keg, which starts a quest to create Stormstout, Chen's famous brew.
- Appears in Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne

Cho'gall

Rexxar The first of the Ogre-Magi, Chieftain of the Twilight Hammer Clan and apprentice of Gul'dan, who tutored him before the invasion of Azeroth. More loyal to his master than to the Horde, Cho'gall later joined his Warlock master in his betrayal to Orgrim Doomhammer and sailed with him to the Tomb of Sargeras where Cho'gall was killed by the demons guarding the Tomb
- Appears in Warcraft II: Tides of Darkness

Daelin Proudmoore

: Main article: Admiral Proudmoore Admiral Daelin Proudmoore is the father of the sorceress Jaina Proudmore and the ruler of the nation of Kul Tiras. He was killed by the Orcish Horde for posing a threat to the newfound nation of Durotar.
- Appears in Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne

Danath Trollbane

Admiral Proudmoore Danath Trollbane is the nephew of Lord Thoras Trollbane of Stromgarde, and a mercenary who assisted in the Human defense of Stromgarde in the Second War. Later, he became one of the heroes fighting alongside Alleria Windrunner and Turalyon.
- Appears in Warcraft II: Beyond the Dark Portal

Dentarg

Dentarg, an Ogre-Mage of the Shadowmoon Clan, is a loyal servant of Ner'zhul. He was sent by his master to rally the Draenor clans loyal to the Shaman to crush the opposing Bonechewers and Thunderlords. Likely killed or transformed into a Lich following the destruction of Draenor.
- Appears in Warcraft II: Beyond the Dark Portal

Detheroc


- Appears in Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne

Drek'thar

Drek'thar is a Frostwolf Shaman who taught Thrall about his roots.
- Appears in the novelization Warcraft: Lord of the Clans
- Appears in Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne
- Appears in World of Warcraft

Durotan

: Main article: Durotan Father of the Warchief Thrall, allies with Orgrim Doomhammer. Previously cheiftain of the Frostwolf Clan which was banished by Ner'Zhul. Murdered by Rend and Maim, sons of Blackhand.
- Appears in the novelization Warcraft: Lord of the Clans

Edwin VanCleef

Head of the Stonemason's Guild and one of the peerless architects to help rebuild the city of Stormwind, VanCleef and his fellow Stonemasons were denied payment for their efforts after the First War. Standing with his fellow disenfranchised workers instead of accepting a bureaucratic position as a payoff, he formed the Defias Brotherhood to seek revenge against Stormwind. A master swordsman as well as a brilliant engineer, he leads the Defias from the labyrinthine Deadmines in their infiltration throughout the last human kingdom, recruiting allies amongst other disenchanted humans, and even goblins.
- Appears in the World of Warcraft

Elune

: Main article: Elune The Goddess of the Night (more specifically the Moon), venerated by the Night Elves.

Lord Garithos

Lord Garithos was a human knight and a regional commander of the surviving Alliance forces in Lordaeron following its conquest by the Scourge. Racist and self-important, he despised both elves and dwarves, constantly mistreated Prince Kael'thas and even sentenced him to death for consorting with the Naga. During the Undead Civil War, the Dreadlord Detheroc took control over his and his forces' minds, thus greatly boosting Detheroc's armies. However, Sylvanas and Detheroc's brother, Varimathras, slew Detheroc, thus ending the mental control over Garithos and his forces. He was then forced to join forces with the Forsaken against Balnazzar, the last of Varimathras' brothers in order to reclaim the Capital City.. After the victory at Lordaeron's capital, Garithos ordered Sylvanas Windrunner to leave Lordaeron. However, as Sylvanas had planned from the very beginning of their "alliance", she ordered Varimathras to kill Garithos. Varimathras carried out her orders, and Garithos's leaderless army was quickly scattered. He was eaten by ghouls.
- Appears in Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne

Garona

: Main article: Garona (Warcraft) Garona was a half-orc who served Gul'dan as an assassin for the Shadow Council. First appears in Warcraft: Orcs & Humans during an orc campaign mission when the player has to rescue her from capture. She is further discussed in the book The Last Guardian, where it's revealed that she acted as a diplomat between the early Horde invaders and the humans through Medivh. Serving Medivh, she meets a young Khadgar, still apprenticed under Medivh at the time, who distrusts her because of her Orc heritage. Over time, the two begrudgingly accept one another and even begin to form trust, trying to discover the truth behind the odd happenings in Karazhan, Medivh's tower. When Medivh loses himself to the power of Sargeras, Garona has a premonition that she will be the one to kill King Llane, and removes herself from further aiding Khadgar. She carries out her destiny, and carves out King Llane's heart, under the orders of the Shadow Council. After the First Great War, when Blackhand is usurped by Orgrim Doomhammer, the new Warchief tortures Garona into revealing the location of the Shadow Council, which is quickly dispatched, now seating Doomhammer as true ruler of the Horde. Garona disappears and is presumed dead; However, in the beta of World of Warcraft, she could be found as an NPC in Ravenhold Manor with the title "Grand Master of the Assassin's Guild", suggesting that she may have survived. She was quickly removed, but she may appear again in a later patch.

Gazlowe

Engineer Gazlowe is a Goblin who assists Thrall in constructing the new nation of Durotar.
- Appears in the novelization Warcraft: Lord of the Clans
- Appears in Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne
- Appears in World of Warcraft

Finnall Goldensword

Finnall Goldensword is a second daughter of Admiral Proudmoore, born outside of his marriage when he had an affair with an elven sorceress named Kilnar Goldensword. The daughter, Finnall, was not made publicly known.

Genjuros

Genjuros was a General and adept Blademaster of the Blackrock Orcs. Genjuros met his end in the battle between the Undead Scourge and the Blackrock Orcs. Kel'Thuzad and Arthas wasted no time in ending his life. As one of the Blackrock Orc heroes, he was widely respected by all divisions of the Blackrock Orcs. Genjuros had studied under Jubei'Thos during times of relative peace and was becoming very skilled with a blade. However, before he could complete his training, he was mercilessly slaughtered by the Undead Legions...
- Appears in Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos

Grom Hellscream

World of Warcraft : Main article: Grom Hellscream Friend and companion of Thrall. Leader of the Warsong clan, rid the Orcs of their Demonic influence by killing Mannoroth. He died shortly after his victory, whispering to Thrall of his freedom. His real name is Grommash, and mean 'Hearth of giant' in orcish tongue.
- Appears in Warcraft II: Beyond the Dark Portal
- Appears in Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos

Gul'dan

: Main article: Gul'dan Student of Ner'zhul, obsessed with power, Gul'dan was the Warlock contacted by Medivh to open new worlds for invasion. He was killed along side Cho'gall by the Demons defending Sargeras' tomb.
- Appears in Warcraft II: Tides of Darkness
- Appears in Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne

Hakkar the Soulflayer

Gul'dan Originally summoned millennia ago to strengthen and protect the Troll tribes of Stranglethorn Vale, Hakkar often demanded daily sacrifices and worse to appease him. Eventually, a few tribes realized Hakkar was using them to regain his full power in this world in order to conquer it all, and rebelled against him and his followers. In the bloody battle that ensued, Hakkar was banished and the Troll tribes splintered. Hakkar's followers were exiled from the tribes, but they did not stop in their quest to serve. They built the Temple of Atal'Hakkar in the remote Swamp of Sorrows to continue their pursuit of bringing the Soulflayer to rule Azeroth. Eventually, the Dragonflights caught wind of this, and caused the temple to sink into the swamp. But, this did not stop the fanatical followers of Hakkar. The Blood God of the Trolls, Hakkar was brought back into Azeroth by the Atal'ai priests, an influential sect of the Gurubashi. He now resides in Zul'Gurub, an ancient Gurubashi city, where he plans his conquest of the world. He is powered by the High Priest Aspects in the city.
- Appears in World of Warcraft

Illidan Stormrage

: Main article: Illidan Stormrage Brother of Malfurion Stormrage; a transformed Demon Hunter. Defeated by Arthas while attempting to kill the Lich King. Twisted by his lust for arcane magic, he now commands a great army from Outland which include Naga, Blood Elves, and Draenei. He has shut off all the portals on Outland in order to protect himself from both the Heroes of Azeroth and the wrath of the Burning Legion.
- Appears in Warcraft: War of the Ancients trilogy
- Appears in Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos
- Appears in Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne
- Appears in World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade

Jaina Proudmoore

: Main article: Jaina Proudmoore Sorceress of the Kirin Tor, and student of the Archmage Antonidas. After the Scourge invaded Lordaeron, she led the Alliance survivors to Kalimdor and fought in the Battle of Mount Hyjal. After the defeat of the Burning Legion, she founded the human city of Theramore in the Dustwallow Marsh.
- Appears in Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos
- Appears in Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne
- Appears in World of Warcraft

Jarod Shadowsong

Originally just a guard from the Night Elf city of Suramar, Jarod Shadowsong became the high commander of the combined Night Elf, Tauren, Earthen, and Furbolg armies during the War of the Ancients after the death of the previous commander, Lord Stareye. Unlike his predecessor, Jarod proved himself to be competent, and was instrumental in the eventual victory against the burning legion. He is the brother of Maiev Shadowsong.
- Appears in "Warcraft: War of the Ancients trilogy"

Jubei'Thos

Last leader of the Blackrock Orcs. Jubei'Thos was a blademaster of incredible skill and was known for painting his body to distinguish himself as leader of the Blackrock Clan. Jubei'Thos was defeated when Arthas and Kel'Thuzad, with the help of the Undead Scourge, invaded the Blackrock settlement and levelled it to the ground. When Jubei'Thos died, the Warlocks surrounding the Demon Gate were powerless to resist and fell at the might of the Scourge. Jubei'Thos was also responsible for raising many Red Dragons to fight for the Blackrock Orcs, but even these mighty creatures were powerless to defeat the terrible Undead.
- Appears in Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos

Kargath Bladefist

Maiev Shadowsong Chieftain of the Shattered Hand Clan. Loyal to Ner'zhul, overseer of the lands of Draenor during the invasion of Azeroth. Kargath Bladefist was the one-eyed, scythed handed chieftain of the Shattered Hand Clan. Kargath and the Shattered Hand Clan served Ner'zhul and the Horde by staying behind on Draenor and watching over the land while the Orcs waged war upon the Humans on Azeroth. After the Bleeding Hollow Clan returned from Azeroth, Kargath volunteered his clan to go into battle against the Humans. After entering Azeroth, Kargath and his clan were stranded when the majority of the portals back to Draenor were destroyed. Since then Kargath's activities are unknown.
- Appears in Warcraft II: Beyond the Dark Portal
- In World of Warcraft, Bladefist Bay off the coast of [

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